Chapter 24: World War I, 1914–1920
Section 1: War Breaks Out in Europe
Main Idea: After World War I broke out, the United States eventually joined the Allied
side. The immediate cause of World War I was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a young Serbian on June 28, 1914. There also were many long-term causes, including imperialism, nationalism, and militarism. By 1914, two opposing alliances bound European nations together. The Central Powers were Austria-Hungary, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. The Allies included Serbia, Russia, France, Great Britain, and Italy. Early in the war, the German army invaded France and reached the Marne River near Paris. In September 1914, the French and British stopped the Germans at the First Battle of the Marne. Soldiers engaged in trench warfare, or fighting from dug-out ditches. More than one million soldiers lost their lives. The invention of tanks and machine guns that fired 600 bullets a minute contributed to the war’s high death toll. Both sides also used poison gas. Airplanes were used in combat. At sea, the Germans used submarines called U-boats. At first, the United States remained neutral. Then, in May 1915, a German U-boat sank the British passenger ship Lusitania. Among those killed were 128 Americans. Germany agreed to stop targeting unarmed ships but then renewed the attacks in 1917. The Zimmermann telegram also angered Americans. It invited Mexico to join Germany in a war against the United States. In March, German submarines sank three American ships, and the United States declared war. Shortly after the United States entered the war, Russia withdrew. When German troops that had been fighting Russia were reassigned to the Western Front, American troops became more important than ever.
Section 2: America Joins the Fight
Main Idea: U.S. forces helped the Allies win World War I.
When America declared war, Congress passed the Selective Service Act, which required all males between 21 and 30 to sign up for military service. About two million soldiers went to France, where they served under General John J. Pershing as the American
Expeditionary Force, or AEF. About 25,000 American women served in the military as clerical workers, interpreters, ambulance drivers, and nurses. About 400,000 African Americans served in the armed forces despite discrimination. To reduce the loss rate of supply ships, the U.S. navy sent destroyers to protect merchant ships crossing the Atlantic. This was known as the convoy system. In June 1918, the Allies laid 180 miles of mines in the North Sea. This barrier kept most U-boats out of the North Atlantic. In the summer of 1918, American troops helped stop the Germans at the Second Battle of the Marne. After that, the Allies advanced steadily. The decisive blow came in September. Around one million U.S. soldiers took part in the Meuse-Argonne offensive, which pushed back the German line. The fighting left 26,000 Americans dead but forced the Germans to retreat. Sergeant Alvin York and pilot Eddie Rickenbacker were two of many American heroes. African American combat units were honored for battlefield valor. After the crushing defeat of Meuse-Argonne, Germany’s navy mutinied and its allies dropped out. On November 9, Germany’s ruler, Kaiser Wilhelm II, stepped down. Two days later, Germany agreed to an armistice that ended World War I. About 8.5 million soldiers died in the war. About 21 million were wounded. Millions of civilians also died, many from starvation and disease.
Section 3: Life on the Home Front
Main Idea: The war required sacrifice for Americans at home and changed life in other ways. World War I cost the United States $35.5 billion. Americans paid almost two-thirds of that amount by buying government war bonds. These were low-interest loans by civilians to the government. Citizens also helped by using less of the items needed overseas. Families cut back on bread and meat, and also drove less to save gas. The government took greater control of the economy. The War Industries Board managed the buying and distributing of war materials. The National War Labor Board settled conflicts between workers and factory owners. The government also hired artists, photographers, and writers to create propaganda, or material inspiring others to believe in a cause. Propaganda fueled support for the war but also fueled prejudice against Germans. The government, too, showed intolerance. In 1917 and 1918, Congress passed the Espionage and Sedition Acts, which made it illegal to criticize the war. The Supreme Court upheld the laws. Supreme Court Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes argued that while free speech was guaranteed by the First Amendment, it could be limited during wartime. As soldiers went off to battle, the United States faced a labor shortage. Northern factories began hiring African Americans. Between 1910 and 1920, about 500,000 African Americans moved to northern cities, a movement known as the Great Migration. Large numbers of Mexicans filled new jobs in the American Southwest. These jobs were created by the growth of railroads and irrigated farming. Women workers replaced male workers in factories and elsewhere. Their wartime contributions helped them win the vote. In 1918, a flu epidemic killed more than 20 million people. It was spread around the world by soldiers. In the U.S. army, more than a quarter of the soldiers caught the disease. Germans fell victim in even larger numbers.
Section 4: The Legacy of War
Main Idea: After the war, Americans were divided over foreign policy and domestic issues. In 1918, President Wilson described his goals for peace. His statement, the Fourteen Points, called for reducing military forces and ending secret treaties. The fourteenth point proposed the creation of the League of Nations, an association that would settle international disputes peacefully. The leaders of Britain, France, and Italy crafted the Treaty of Versailles, which forced Germany to accept full blame for the war. The treaty took away Germany’s armed forces and most of its colonies. Germany also had to pay $33 billion in reparations—money that pays for the destruction of war. Wilson managed to include the League of Nations in the treaty. However, the Republican run Senate opposed it. Senate leaders did not want the United States involved in the disputes of other nations. In September 1919, Wilson began a cross-country speaking tour to build support for the treaty. During the trip, he suffered a stroke and never fully recovered. In the end, the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. The League of Nations was formed without the United States. Following the war, some Americans saw the formation of labor unions as the work of radicals, or extremists. In 1919–1920, fear of a communist revolution created a panic called the Red Scare. In January 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer ordered federal agents to round up suspected radicals. About 6,000 people were arrested in the Palmer raids. Americans also saw a rise in racial tension, largely as a result of the Great Migration. During the summer of 1919, race riots broke out in 25 cities across the country. In 1920, Republican candidate Warren G. Harding’s promise to “return to normalcy” appealed to voters. As a result, Harding was elected president.
