After you click on these links timeline sites of American History will appear.
http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/timelines/timelines.cfm
http://www.animatedatlas.com/timeline.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0902416.html
Chapter 1: The World in 1500, Beginnings to 1500
Section 1: Crossing to the Americas
Main Idea: Ancient peoples came from Asia to the Americas and over time developed complex civilizations. There are two theories about how the first Americans migrated, or moved, to the Americas from Asia. One theory is that ancient people came during the last Ice Age some 12,000 years ago. They crossed the Bering Strait—a land bridge between Asia and Alaska that is now covered by water. A second theory is that humans came by many routes over thousands of years. The first Americans lived in hunting and gathering cultures. Some cultures became civilizations. A civilization has five features. First, it has cities with trade centers; second, there are specialized jobs; third there is organized government and religion; fourth—a system of record keeping; and fifth people use advanced tools. Two advanced civilizations in early Mesoamerica were the Olmec and the Maya. The Mayans had cities in southern Mexico and Guatemala. They kept accurate calendars, they created a number system, and they had a written language. Other early civilizations include the Hohokam in what is now Arizona, and the Anasazi, who settled in the area where Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico meet. Some early Native Americans built large earthen mounds. These groups include the Adena and the Hopewell. The last group of Mound Builders, the Mississippians, built some of the first cities in North America.Section 2: Societies of North America Main Idea: By 1500, a variety of Native American groups—each with a distinct culture—lived in North America. The environment shaped each of the Native American cultures. The Aleut and the Inuit lived in the far North. They hunted sea mammals and caribou. Northwest Coast people caught salmon and hunted. The peoples of the West included tribes in California, the Colombia Plateau, and the Great Basin. They were hunters and gatherers, and they also fished. Their spiritual beliefs were linked to nature. The Aztecs ruled a great civilization in central Mexico. In 1325, they began building their capital city, Tenochtitlán. They eventually created a strong empire. In the American Southwest, the Pueblo practiced irrigation, while the Navajo and the Apache were hunter-gatherers. The Plains Indians lived on the Great Plains. Some were nomads. Others lived in villages. In summer, they hunted buffalo. In the Southeast, Native Americans became farmers. Their societies were matrilineal, tracing their family ties through women. The Iroquois lived in the Northeast, which was largely forest. They practiced slash-and burn agriculture. In the late 1500s, five northern Iroquois nations formed the Iroquois League. By 1500, hundreds of Native American groups existed. Although different, all Native American groups felt connected to nature. Trade also linked them.Section 3: Societies of West AfricaMain Idea: The Peoples of West Africa developed sophisticated kingdoms, trade networks, and they created great works of art. Africa, the second largest continent, contains dense rainforests, broad savannas, and the world’s largest desert, the Sahara. By 1500 A.D., trade linked Africa with the world. Ghana was the first West African kingdom to grow wealthy by controlling trade in gold and salt. Muslims, or followers of Islam, came from North Africa to trade. In 1076, a Muslim army conquered Ghana’s capital.By the 1200s, the kingdom of Mali was West Africa’s most powerful state. Sundiata, first great leader, was a Muslim who conquered many important trading centers. In 1312, Mansa Musa, another Muslim, began to rule Mali. Soon Mali became one of the world’ s largest empires. The Songhai lived by the Niger River. They broke away from Mali, and Sunni Ali became their ruler. Although a Muslim, Sunni Ali also practiced African religions. After his death in 1492, some Muslims wanted Islam to be Songhai’s only religion. Their leader, Askia Muhammad, became Songhai’s second great ruler. In 1591, North Africa defeated the Songhai. After 1000 A.D., the Hausa states emerged in what is now northern Nigeria. These states thrived on trade. Southwest of the Niger River were the Yoruba states. Statues created by Yoruba artists are still considered great works of art. Benin, located on the Niger River, was also famous for its art.Section 4: Societies of Europe Main Idea: By 1500, Europe was going through a period of social change that sparked interest in learning and exploration. Vikings raided Europe during the Middle Ages. To survive, Europeans turned to feudalism. Feudalism is a political system in which a king allows nobles, or lords, to use his lands in return for military service. Europeans also developed the manor system. Serfs farmed the manors—these were the large estates of the lords. In return, they were given protection. The Catholic Church became a unifying force during this time. By the 1000s, feudalism brought stability to European society. Merchants were safe to travel and trade increased. New towns emerged. Serfs left the manors to become craftspeople and merchants. They became the middle class. In 1096, European Christians launched the Crusades, a series of wars to capture the Holy Land. Although the Crusades failed, they spurred trade. A book by Marco Polo increased interest in Asia. Feudalism grew weak because serfs left the manors. In 1347, a deadly disease, the bubonic plague, killed about one fourth of the population. The plague reduced the number of workers and further weakened feudalism. The Renaissance was a time of growing interest in art and learning. It began in Italy and spread through Europe, lasting from the 1300s to 1600. People began to study the classical Greeks and Romans. In 1455, the printing press was invented, which helped spread new ideas that ultimately weakened the Church. Martin Luther began the Reformation, a movement to correct problems in the Church. The Reformation split the Church into two groups, Catholics and Protestants. Italian merchants made huge profits by trading in Asian goods. To prevent other Europeans from trading with Asia, the Italians controlled the Mediterranean Sea. Other Europeans began to search for another water route to Asia. Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, reached the southern tip of Africa in 1488. Ten years later, Vasco de Gama found an all-water route to Asia. As a result, Portugal took over the spice trade.Section 5: Early European Explorers Main Idea: As Europeans searched for sea routes to Asia, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas. An Italian sailor, Christopher Columbus, thought he knew a faster way to Asia. Columbus asked Spain’s rulers, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, to pay for his voyage. They wanted to share in the rich Asian trade. Queen Isabella also wanted to spread Christianity. In 1492, they agreed to his request. Columbus began his voyage in August of 1492. His three ships sailed southwest toward the Canary Islands. By October 10th, the crew lost confidence in Columbus. To avoid mutiny, Columbus agreed to turn back if they did not sight land within three days. On October 12, they sighted land. The ships landed on a Caribbean island. Columbus thought he had reached the Indies—islands in Southeast Asia. He called the islanders Indians. Columbus named the island San Salvador. Believing he had found an all-water route to Asia, Columbus sailed back to Spain. Columbus made three more voyages to the Americas. He neither brought back treasure nor spread Christianity. Instead, he enslaved the people of Hispaniola. After his fourth voyage, Spain’s rulers refused to help him further. The voyages of Columbus changed European views of the world. People realized that Columbus had reached continents not known to them before. They began to see the Atlantic Ocean as a bridge that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Friday, March 7, 2008
Chapter 2 Europeans Explore the Americas (1492-1700)
Chapter 2: European Exploration of the Americas 1492–1700
Section 1: Spain Claims an Empire
Main Idea: Spain Claimed a large empire in the Americas. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI drew an imaginary north-south line--the Line of --which divided the world into two parts. Lands to the east of the line belonged to Portugal and lands to the west belonged to Spain. A year later, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordessillas, which moved the Line of Demarcation more than 800 miles to the west. European exploration soon increased. Its goals were threefold. First, countries wanted to spread Christianity. Second, they wanted to expand their empires. Third, they wanted greater wealth. Colonies enriched European nations with their gold, and silver and by trading goods. Colonies also served as markets for the home country. This economic system was called mercantilism. Early explorers included Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor who hoped to find a sea route to Asia but found America instead. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer who reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513. In 1519, Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan set out for Asia by sailing around South America. Although he died on the trip, his crew became the first to sail around the world. Hernando Cortés was a Spanish conqueror or conquistador. He and his men landed on the Central American coast in 1519. They captured the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, and defeated the Aztecs. Both sides lost many men. Smallpox, a disease carried by the Europeans to Central America, also killed many Aztecs. The Spanish built Mexico City at the site of Tenochtitlán, the former Aztec capital. Another conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, set out to capture the wealth of the Incas, who lived in South America. When Pizarro landed on Peru’s coast in 1525, the Incan emperor, Atahualpa, feared that the Spanish might be gods. He would not let his people fight. The easily conquered Peru. The superior weapons and fighting skills of the Spanish also contributed greatly to their success in conquering Native American empires. Rumors of golden cities prompted three Spanish expeditions between 1539 and 1542. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado traveled through present-day Arizona and New Mexico. Hernando de Soto explored the southeast, and Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed up the California coast. None found the fabled golden cities.Section 2: European Competition in North America Main Idea: Several European countries competed with Spain for control over territory in the Americas. Many European explorers searched for the Northwest Passage, a water route to Asia through North America. One of the first was an Italian sailor, John Cabot, who sailed for the English. In 1497, Cabot landed in Newfoundland, Canada, which he claimed for England. Two others, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier also failed to find the Northwest Passage. Equally unsuccessful was Henry Hudson, an Englishman whose voyages in 1609 and 1610 were among the last attempts to find the water route. French and English claims to North America angered Spain. Tension also grew from religious conflicts. As a result, the Spanish attacked a French fort in Florida that contained French Protestants. In 1558, religious differences led England’s Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, to challenge Spain’s sea power. Although England’s navy was small, its daring sailors, known as sea dogs, had the advantage of skill and speedy ships. One of the most famous, Sir Francis Drake, stole great amounts of treasure from Spanish ships. Drake was the first Englishman to sail around the world. In 1588, Spain’s King Philip II attempted to conquer England and restore Catholicism there. When the Spanish Armada, a fleet of 130 warships, entered the English Channel, the English navy destroyed half its ships.Hoping to gain wealth, France and the Netherlands also colonized the Americas. In 1608,Samuel de Champlain founded New France, a fur-trading post on the St. Lawrence River.It was the first permanent French settlement in North America. A year later, the Dutch built New Netherland, a colony along the Hudson River. In 1626, they founded New Amsterdam, which eventually became New York City. Fur-trading caused the colony to prosper.Section 3: The Spanish and Native Americans Main Idea: Spanish rule in the Americas had terrible consequences for Native Americans. Around 1700, Spain divided its American empire into two provinces—New Spain and Peru. Each province was governed by a viceroy in the king’s name. Grants of Native American labor and the creation of large estates called haciendas concentrated power in the hands of a small number of Spaniards. Spanish colonial society was like a pyramid. Spanish-born colonists were at the top. Next came the Creoles—people of Spanish descent—who were born in the colonies. Below them were the mestizos, people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. At the bottom were the Native Americans and enslaved Africans. To convert Native Americans to Christianity, the Catholic Church built missions. Missionaries helped Native Americans create a better food supply and taught them to read and write. Unfortunately, missionaries often treated Native Americans like slaves. The Spanish forced Native Americans to work on large farms called plantations. Sugar was the most common crop, being in great demand in Europe. Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Spaniard who fought for better treatment of Native Americans. His efforts caused the Spanish king to issue laws calling for the freeing of enslaved Native Americans. When Spanish colonists protested, the king reversed many of these laws. European colonization in the Americas led to an exchange of living things between the Eastern and Western hemispheres, called the Columbian Exchange. Items such as vegetables, livestock, grains, fruit, and coffee were exchanged. Unfortunately, germs and viruses were also transferred. Native Americans had no natural immunity to European diseases. As a result, millions of them died. The introduction of American crops into the European diet caused the European population to grow rapidly. The Spanish also brought many plants and animals to the Americas.Section 4: Beginnings of Slavery in the Americas Main Idea: Slavery in the Americas began in order to provide cheap labor for the colonies. By the 1600s, slavery was firmly established in the Americas. Colonial Spanish and Portuguese plantation owners used African slave labor for four reasons. First, Africans were immune to European diseases. Second, Africans had no friends or family in the Americas to help them resist or escape. Third, they provided cheap labor, and fourth, many had worked on farms in Africa. West African kings participated in the slave trade by selling captives from inland regions. The forced removal of Africans became known as the African Diaspora. The voyage from Africa was called the Middle Passage, which referred to the middle leg of the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Inhuman conditions on the slave ships caused the death of many Africans. The slave trade lasted from the 1500s to the mid-1800s and became part of the Columbian Exchange. Slave codes passed by the Spanish government regulated the treatment of slaves. Although some of these laws attempted to improve conditions for plantation slaves, most were designed to keep slaves in bondage. Nevertheless, some slaves managed to escape and form communities. Slavery led to the creation of an African-based culture in the Americas, with dance, music, and storytelling playing important roles.
Section 1: Spain Claims an Empire
Main Idea: Spain Claimed a large empire in the Americas. In 1493, Pope Alexander VI drew an imaginary north-south line--the Line of --which divided the world into two parts. Lands to the east of the line belonged to Portugal and lands to the west belonged to Spain. A year later, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordessillas, which moved the Line of Demarcation more than 800 miles to the west. European exploration soon increased. Its goals were threefold. First, countries wanted to spread Christianity. Second, they wanted to expand their empires. Third, they wanted greater wealth. Colonies enriched European nations with their gold, and silver and by trading goods. Colonies also served as markets for the home country. This economic system was called mercantilism. Early explorers included Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor who hoped to find a sea route to Asia but found America instead. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer who reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513. In 1519, Portuguese sailor Ferdinand Magellan set out for Asia by sailing around South America. Although he died on the trip, his crew became the first to sail around the world. Hernando Cortés was a Spanish conqueror or conquistador. He and his men landed on the Central American coast in 1519. They captured the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, and defeated the Aztecs. Both sides lost many men. Smallpox, a disease carried by the Europeans to Central America, also killed many Aztecs. The Spanish built Mexico City at the site of Tenochtitlán, the former Aztec capital. Another conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, set out to capture the wealth of the Incas, who lived in South America. When Pizarro landed on Peru’s coast in 1525, the Incan emperor, Atahualpa, feared that the Spanish might be gods. He would not let his people fight. The easily conquered Peru. The superior weapons and fighting skills of the Spanish also contributed greatly to their success in conquering Native American empires. Rumors of golden cities prompted three Spanish expeditions between 1539 and 1542. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado traveled through present-day Arizona and New Mexico. Hernando de Soto explored the southeast, and Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo sailed up the California coast. None found the fabled golden cities.Section 2: European Competition in North America Main Idea: Several European countries competed with Spain for control over territory in the Americas. Many European explorers searched for the Northwest Passage, a water route to Asia through North America. One of the first was an Italian sailor, John Cabot, who sailed for the English. In 1497, Cabot landed in Newfoundland, Canada, which he claimed for England. Two others, Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier also failed to find the Northwest Passage. Equally unsuccessful was Henry Hudson, an Englishman whose voyages in 1609 and 1610 were among the last attempts to find the water route. French and English claims to North America angered Spain. Tension also grew from religious conflicts. As a result, the Spanish attacked a French fort in Florida that contained French Protestants. In 1558, religious differences led England’s Queen Elizabeth I, a Protestant, to challenge Spain’s sea power. Although England’s navy was small, its daring sailors, known as sea dogs, had the advantage of skill and speedy ships. One of the most famous, Sir Francis Drake, stole great amounts of treasure from Spanish ships. Drake was the first Englishman to sail around the world. In 1588, Spain’s King Philip II attempted to conquer England and restore Catholicism there. When the Spanish Armada, a fleet of 130 warships, entered the English Channel, the English navy destroyed half its ships.Hoping to gain wealth, France and the Netherlands also colonized the Americas. In 1608,Samuel de Champlain founded New France, a fur-trading post on the St. Lawrence River.It was the first permanent French settlement in North America. A year later, the Dutch built New Netherland, a colony along the Hudson River. In 1626, they founded New Amsterdam, which eventually became New York City. Fur-trading caused the colony to prosper.Section 3: The Spanish and Native Americans Main Idea: Spanish rule in the Americas had terrible consequences for Native Americans. Around 1700, Spain divided its American empire into two provinces—New Spain and Peru. Each province was governed by a viceroy in the king’s name. Grants of Native American labor and the creation of large estates called haciendas concentrated power in the hands of a small number of Spaniards. Spanish colonial society was like a pyramid. Spanish-born colonists were at the top. Next came the Creoles—people of Spanish descent—who were born in the colonies. Below them were the mestizos, people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. At the bottom were the Native Americans and enslaved Africans. To convert Native Americans to Christianity, the Catholic Church built missions. Missionaries helped Native Americans create a better food supply and taught them to read and write. Unfortunately, missionaries often treated Native Americans like slaves. The Spanish forced Native Americans to work on large farms called plantations. Sugar was the most common crop, being in great demand in Europe. Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Spaniard who fought for better treatment of Native Americans. His efforts caused the Spanish king to issue laws calling for the freeing of enslaved Native Americans. When Spanish colonists protested, the king reversed many of these laws. European colonization in the Americas led to an exchange of living things between the Eastern and Western hemispheres, called the Columbian Exchange. Items such as vegetables, livestock, grains, fruit, and coffee were exchanged. Unfortunately, germs and viruses were also transferred. Native Americans had no natural immunity to European diseases. As a result, millions of them died. The introduction of American crops into the European diet caused the European population to grow rapidly. The Spanish also brought many plants and animals to the Americas.Section 4: Beginnings of Slavery in the Americas Main Idea: Slavery in the Americas began in order to provide cheap labor for the colonies. By the 1600s, slavery was firmly established in the Americas. Colonial Spanish and Portuguese plantation owners used African slave labor for four reasons. First, Africans were immune to European diseases. Second, Africans had no friends or family in the Americas to help them resist or escape. Third, they provided cheap labor, and fourth, many had worked on farms in Africa. West African kings participated in the slave trade by selling captives from inland regions. The forced removal of Africans became known as the African Diaspora. The voyage from Africa was called the Middle Passage, which referred to the middle leg of the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Inhuman conditions on the slave ships caused the death of many Africans. The slave trade lasted from the 1500s to the mid-1800s and became part of the Columbian Exchange. Slave codes passed by the Spanish government regulated the treatment of slaves. Although some of these laws attempted to improve conditions for plantation slaves, most were designed to keep slaves in bondage. Nevertheless, some slaves managed to escape and form communities. Slavery led to the creation of an African-based culture in the Americas, with dance, music, and storytelling playing important roles.
Chapter 3 The 13 Colonies (1585-1732)
Chapter 3: The English Establish 13 Colonies, 1585–1732
Section 1: Early Colonies Have Mixed Success
Key Idea: Two early English colonies failed, but Jamestown survived. In the late 1500s, England wanted to start a colony for two reasons: to obtain raw materials and to increase trade. Many English colonists came to America to seek their fortune. Others came for religious freedom. was England’s first colony in America. Sir Walter Raleigh founded Virginia in 1585 on Roanoke Island. The colonists were not prepared for the harsh conditions and without the help of the Native Americans, many colonists died. The survivors returned to England in 1586. The Plymouth Company financed a second colony called Sagadahoc in what is now Maine. It also failed. After Sir Walter Raleigh lost his investment in the Roanoke colony, Britain realized it would take more than one person to make a colony in America successful. They decided to finance new colonies through joint-stock companies. Investors in these companies shared the profits and divided the losses. In 1601, King James gave charters, or government contracts, to the Virginia Companies of London and Plymouth. In 1607, the Virginia Company of London established the first permanent English settlement. It was named Jamestown in honor of King James. Many colonists searched for gold instead of building homes and growing food. Weakened by the harsh climate, many died from malaria and other illnesses. John Smith helped save the colony by taking control and forcing the colonists to work. In 1612, John Rolfe introduced tobacco, which became very profitable. The colonists encouraged new settlers to come as indentured servants. These men and women sold their labor to the person who paid for their passage. Then, after working for a number of years, they were free to farm or take up a trade. When the colonists wanted greater control of their own interests, the Virginia Company allowed them to elect representatives called burgesses. In 1619, the House of Burgesses became the first representative assembly in the American colonies. In 1676, a group of landless settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon, demanded war against the Native Americans. Their purpose was to get land for growing tobacco. When the governor refused to declare war, Bacon and his followers burned Jamestown to the ground. This was called Bacon’s Rebellion. The rebellion ended when Bacon suddenly died.Section 2: New England Colonies Key Idea: Religion influenced the settlement and government of the New England colonies. The Pilgrims, a religious group in Britain, wished to separate from the Church of England. When King James treated them harshly for their beliefs, they arranged with the Virginia Company to settle in America. In November 1620, their ship, the Mayflower, was off course and landed in a place the Pilgrims called Plymouth. Because Plymouth was outside the Virginia Company’s land boundaries, the Pilgrims’ charter was not valid. To keep order, the men signed the Mayflower Compact. They promised to obey the laws they made. After a hard first winter, about half of the Pilgrims died. Then Squanto, a Native American, helped the colonists negotiate a treaty with his tribe. He also showed them how to plant, hunt, and fish. In the fall the Pilgrims and the Native Americans celebrated a good harvest. This feast was the first Thanksgiving.Another religious group was the Puritans. They also left England to escape religious persecution. Puritans wanted to reform, or "purify," the Church of England. They wanted to rid the church of Catholic traditions. Thousands of Puritans left England for America. Their leaving was called the Great Migration. In 1630, about 1,000 Puritans settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony in New England. Each congregation set up its own town. The people would gather at a meetinghouse to make laws and important decisions. By law, everyone had to attend church services. Sermons taught the "New England Way," which stressed hard work. Not everyone supported the New England Way. Puritan minister Roger Williams was forced to leave the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of his beliefs. He founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Anne Hutchinson also was forced to leave for disagreeing with the church. She, too, fled to Rhode Island, as did many Quakers. Thomas Hooker moved his congregation to the Connecticut Valley. There they wrote the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This document expanded the voting rights of the people. As the Massachusetts colony grew, settlers began to take Native American land. In 1675, a chief the English called King Philip led an alliance of Native Americans against the colonists. This war, called King Philip’s War, lasted more than a year. The colonists defeated the Native Americans. In the late 1600s, several young girls in Salem accused certain people of witchcraft. More than 100 people were arrested and tried. Twenty were found guilty and put to death. The religious leaders viewed the trials as a sign from God to return to a strict Puritan lifestyle.Section 3 : The Middle Colonies Key Idea: The founding of the Middle and Southern colonies provided settlers with many economic opportunities. The Middle Colonies of America were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Settlers came for religious freedom and to escape the poverty of England. The rich soil made farming and raising livestock favorable. The rivers supported shipping and trade. Dutch settlers founded the colony of New Netherland in 1624. To attract more settlers, they set up a "patroon" system. In exchange for bringing 50 settlers to New Netherland, a patroon received a large piece of land. Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherland, attacked the nearby colony of New Sweden in 1624. The Swedes surrendered their main settlement to the Dutch. Later, the brother of England’s King Charles II, the Duke of York, drove the Dutch out of New Netherland. New Netherland then became the colony of New York, with the Duke as its proprietor, or owner. The colony of New Jersey was started when the Duke of York gave land to his friends. New Jersey encouraged settlers by promising them freedom of religion. William Penn used his own land to start the colony of Pennsylvania. Penn belonged to the Quakers, another religious group. The Pennsylvania colony gave the Quakers and all others religious freedom. Eventually, some of the Pennsylvania counties broke away to form the colony of Delaware. The American Southern Colonies were Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The soil and climate of these areas were suitable for warm-weather crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo. Lord Baltimore started the colony of Maryland in 1632. It became home to Roman Catholics who were fleeing religious persecution. To attract more settlers, Baltimore promised freedom of religion for all. Tobacco growing was an important part of Maryland’s economy. The colony of Carolina was founded in 1663. English settlers from Barbados built Charles Town, later called Charleston, in 1670. They used enslaved Africans as laborers for growing rice and indigo. They also sold Native Americans into slavery. Carolina became a royal colony in 1729. The colony was divided into North and South Carolina. In 1732, James Oglethorpe founded Georgia as a refuge for debtors. The English government wanted to use Georgia as an outpost against the Spanish in Florida and the French in Louisiana. The Spanish tried without success to force the English out of Georgia. Oglethorpe set up strict rules that upset the colonists. This caused the king to make Georgia a royal colony in 1752.
Section 1: Early Colonies Have Mixed Success
Key Idea: Two early English colonies failed, but Jamestown survived. In the late 1500s, England wanted to start a colony for two reasons: to obtain raw materials and to increase trade. Many English colonists came to America to seek their fortune. Others came for religious freedom. was England’s first colony in America. Sir Walter Raleigh founded Virginia in 1585 on Roanoke Island. The colonists were not prepared for the harsh conditions and without the help of the Native Americans, many colonists died. The survivors returned to England in 1586. The Plymouth Company financed a second colony called Sagadahoc in what is now Maine. It also failed. After Sir Walter Raleigh lost his investment in the Roanoke colony, Britain realized it would take more than one person to make a colony in America successful. They decided to finance new colonies through joint-stock companies. Investors in these companies shared the profits and divided the losses. In 1601, King James gave charters, or government contracts, to the Virginia Companies of London and Plymouth. In 1607, the Virginia Company of London established the first permanent English settlement. It was named Jamestown in honor of King James. Many colonists searched for gold instead of building homes and growing food. Weakened by the harsh climate, many died from malaria and other illnesses. John Smith helped save the colony by taking control and forcing the colonists to work. In 1612, John Rolfe introduced tobacco, which became very profitable. The colonists encouraged new settlers to come as indentured servants. These men and women sold their labor to the person who paid for their passage. Then, after working for a number of years, they were free to farm or take up a trade. When the colonists wanted greater control of their own interests, the Virginia Company allowed them to elect representatives called burgesses. In 1619, the House of Burgesses became the first representative assembly in the American colonies. In 1676, a group of landless settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon, demanded war against the Native Americans. Their purpose was to get land for growing tobacco. When the governor refused to declare war, Bacon and his followers burned Jamestown to the ground. This was called Bacon’s Rebellion. The rebellion ended when Bacon suddenly died.Section 2: New England Colonies Key Idea: Religion influenced the settlement and government of the New England colonies. The Pilgrims, a religious group in Britain, wished to separate from the Church of England. When King James treated them harshly for their beliefs, they arranged with the Virginia Company to settle in America. In November 1620, their ship, the Mayflower, was off course and landed in a place the Pilgrims called Plymouth. Because Plymouth was outside the Virginia Company’s land boundaries, the Pilgrims’ charter was not valid. To keep order, the men signed the Mayflower Compact. They promised to obey the laws they made. After a hard first winter, about half of the Pilgrims died. Then Squanto, a Native American, helped the colonists negotiate a treaty with his tribe. He also showed them how to plant, hunt, and fish. In the fall the Pilgrims and the Native Americans celebrated a good harvest. This feast was the first Thanksgiving.Another religious group was the Puritans. They also left England to escape religious persecution. Puritans wanted to reform, or "purify," the Church of England. They wanted to rid the church of Catholic traditions. Thousands of Puritans left England for America. Their leaving was called the Great Migration. In 1630, about 1,000 Puritans settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony in New England. Each congregation set up its own town. The people would gather at a meetinghouse to make laws and important decisions. By law, everyone had to attend church services. Sermons taught the "New England Way," which stressed hard work. Not everyone supported the New England Way. Puritan minister Roger Williams was forced to leave the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of his beliefs. He founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Anne Hutchinson also was forced to leave for disagreeing with the church. She, too, fled to Rhode Island, as did many Quakers. Thomas Hooker moved his congregation to the Connecticut Valley. There they wrote the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This document expanded the voting rights of the people. As the Massachusetts colony grew, settlers began to take Native American land. In 1675, a chief the English called King Philip led an alliance of Native Americans against the colonists. This war, called King Philip’s War, lasted more than a year. The colonists defeated the Native Americans. In the late 1600s, several young girls in Salem accused certain people of witchcraft. More than 100 people were arrested and tried. Twenty were found guilty and put to death. The religious leaders viewed the trials as a sign from God to return to a strict Puritan lifestyle.Section 3 : The Middle Colonies Key Idea: The founding of the Middle and Southern colonies provided settlers with many economic opportunities. The Middle Colonies of America were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Settlers came for religious freedom and to escape the poverty of England. The rich soil made farming and raising livestock favorable. The rivers supported shipping and trade. Dutch settlers founded the colony of New Netherland in 1624. To attract more settlers, they set up a "patroon" system. In exchange for bringing 50 settlers to New Netherland, a patroon received a large piece of land. Peter Stuyvesant, the governor of New Netherland, attacked the nearby colony of New Sweden in 1624. The Swedes surrendered their main settlement to the Dutch. Later, the brother of England’s King Charles II, the Duke of York, drove the Dutch out of New Netherland. New Netherland then became the colony of New York, with the Duke as its proprietor, or owner. The colony of New Jersey was started when the Duke of York gave land to his friends. New Jersey encouraged settlers by promising them freedom of religion. William Penn used his own land to start the colony of Pennsylvania. Penn belonged to the Quakers, another religious group. The Pennsylvania colony gave the Quakers and all others religious freedom. Eventually, some of the Pennsylvania counties broke away to form the colony of Delaware. The American Southern Colonies were Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The soil and climate of these areas were suitable for warm-weather crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo. Lord Baltimore started the colony of Maryland in 1632. It became home to Roman Catholics who were fleeing religious persecution. To attract more settlers, Baltimore promised freedom of religion for all. Tobacco growing was an important part of Maryland’s economy. The colony of Carolina was founded in 1663. English settlers from Barbados built Charles Town, later called Charleston, in 1670. They used enslaved Africans as laborers for growing rice and indigo. They also sold Native Americans into slavery. Carolina became a royal colony in 1729. The colony was divided into North and South Carolina. In 1732, James Oglethorpe founded Georgia as a refuge for debtors. The English government wanted to use Georgia as an outpost against the Spanish in Florida and the French in Louisiana. The Spanish tried without success to force the English out of Georgia. Oglethorpe set up strict rules that upset the colonists. This caused the king to make Georgia a royal colony in 1752.
Chapter 4 The Colonies Develop (1700-1753)
Chapter 4: The Colonies Develop, 1700-1753
Section 1: New England: Commerce and Religion
Main Idea: Fishing and trade contributed to the growth and prosperity of the New England Colonies. By the 1700s, there were four different colonial regions in America: the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, the Southern Colonies, and the Backcountry, which ran along the Appalachian Mountains. New England officials usually sold large plots of land to groups such as Puritan congregations. Then the groups divided the land among their members. Colonists usually built their farmhouses and a meetinghouse near a “green”. A “green” is a central square. Poor soil made farming difficult. Most New England farmers produced just enough food for themselves. This is called subsistence farming. The New England coast did offer some excellent fishing grounds, and forests provided wood for building ships. Fish and wood were among New England’s most valuable articles of trade. New England settlers participated in “triangular trade”—the name given to a trading route with three stops. In 1651, England began to pass the Navigation Acts. These acts were supposed to make money from the colonies’ profitable trade. Many colonists ignored the Acts. Smuggling became common. Most New England farms were small. New Englanders in the larger towns did own slaves and often hired them out. Sometimes slaves were allowed to keep part of their wages, which they often saved to buy their freedom. New England became home to more free blacks than any other region. The Puritan religion declined in the 1700s. One reason was that the drive for economic gain competed with Puritan ideas. Another reason was that other religious groups competed with Puritans for new members. Also, England had given Massachusetts a new royal charter in 1691. It gave religious freedom to groups besides the Puritans. It also granted the right to vote based on property ownership instead of church membership. Non-church members now had power.
Section 2: The Middle Colonies: Farms and Cities
Main Idea: The people who settled in the Middle Colonies made a society of great diversity. The soil of the Middle Colonies was better for farming than in New England and the growing season was longer. These conditions attracted European immigrants. Dutch and German farmers brought advanced farming methods. The Middle Colonies began to produce cash crops. Cash crops—unlike those from subsistence farming—are raised to be sold. After harvesting their corn, wheat, rye, or other grains, farmers took them to a gristmill. There they were ground into flour. Colonists built gristmills along the region’s many rivers. They used the force of the flowing water to power the mills.
The excellent harbors along the coasts of the Middle Colonies were perfect sites for cities. Philadelphia, on the Delaware River, grew the fastest. It prospered from trade in cash crops. The busy port of New York, on the Hudson River, owed its growth to trade in flour, bread, furs, and whale oil. The populations of the port cities soon showed great diversity—ethnic variety. After the English, the Germans were the largest group. Germans arrived between 1710 and 1740. Most came as indentured servants. Among them were many skillful farmers and artisans. The Middle Colonies also became home to the Dutch, African, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Swedish, French, and Scots-Irish people. The Dutch in New York and the Quakers in Pennsylvania practiced religious tolerance. Quakers also insisted on the equality of men and women. They were the first to raise their voices against slavery. Quaker ideals eventually influenced the whole nation. In 1750, about seven percent of the Middle Colonies’ population was enslaved. New York City had more people of African descent than any other Northern colonial city. In 1712, a group of about 24 rebellious slaves killed nine settlers and wounded several others. Armed colonists caught the suspects and punished them horribly. Even so, slave rebellions continued to occur.
Section 3: The Southern Colonies: Plantations and Slavery
Main Idea: The economy of the Southern Colonies relied heavily on slave labor. The soil and almost year-round growing season in the southern colonies were ideal for plantation crops such as rice and tobacco. These crops required much labor. In the 1660s, planters began using more enslaved Africans on their plantations. One reason was that indentured servants were leaving plantations to start their own farms. Another was that planters were not successful in forcing Native Americans to work on the plantations. By 1750, enslaved Africans made up about 40 percent of the South’s population. Plantations expanded in South Carolina and Georgia. Plantation owners, or the planter class, held most of the political and economic power in the South. Planters in the lowlands bought slaves from West Africa to grow rice. Eliza Lucas introduced indigo as a successful plantation crop on her father’s South Carolina plantation. The indigo plant yields a deep blue dye. On large Southern plantations, slaves worked in groups of about 20 to 25. Planters hired overseers to work the slaves. Slaves were often whipped. They usually lived in small, poorly furnished cabins and were given inadequate food. Nevertheless, African customs and beliefs survived and became the basis of African-American culture. Africans fought against their enslavement and at times openly rebelled. In September of 1739, about 20 slaves killed several planter families near Charles Town. Many of the slaves then were captured and killed by a militia. Rebellions such as the Stono Rebellion led planters to make slave laws even stricter.
Section 4: The Backcountry
Main Idea: Settlers moved to the Backcountry because land was cheap and plentiful. The Backcountry was located in or near the Appalachian Mountains. Its resources included springs, streams, and forests. In the South, the Backcountry began at the fall line—where waterfalls prevent large boats from moving upriver. Beyond the fall line lay the piedmont—an area at the foot of a mountain or mountain range. The first European settlers in the Backcountry made a living trading with Native Americans. They paid for goods with deerskins. A unit of value was one buckskin, or a “buck.” Then farmers came and built log cabins. Settlers began to clash with the Native Americans. In the 1700s, a new group of immigrants—the Scots-Irish—arrived. They came from the border between Scotland and England, where they had endured many hardships. The Scots-Irish brought their clan system with them. Clans are large groups of families that claim a common ancestor. In the Backcountry, rough roads and rivers made it hard to move goods. Backcountry farmers had to learn to depend on themselves. They built cabins and made rough furniture from logs. They ate hogs, cattle, fish, game, and corn. Backcountry women worked in the fields, as well as in the home. They learned to use guns and axes. The desire for land led many Backcountry settlers to move westward. These settlers encountered the French and Spanish, as well as Native Americans. Conflicts were common, as Native Americans tried to protect their land. Conflicts over land also arose between English settlers and French fur traders. Spanish settlers, who lived in what is now Florida, Texas, and California, were farmers, ranchers, and priests. The priests established missions to convert Native Americans. Forts were built near the missions to protect them.
Main Idea: Fishing and trade contributed to the growth and prosperity of the New England Colonies. By the 1700s, there were four different colonial regions in America: the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, the Southern Colonies, and the Backcountry, which ran along the Appalachian Mountains. New England officials usually sold large plots of land to groups such as Puritan congregations. Then the groups divided the land among their members. Colonists usually built their farmhouses and a meetinghouse near a “green”. A “green” is a central square. Poor soil made farming difficult. Most New England farmers produced just enough food for themselves. This is called subsistence farming. The New England coast did offer some excellent fishing grounds, and forests provided wood for building ships. Fish and wood were among New England’s most valuable articles of trade. New England settlers participated in “triangular trade”—the name given to a trading route with three stops. In 1651, England began to pass the Navigation Acts. These acts were supposed to make money from the colonies’ profitable trade. Many colonists ignored the Acts. Smuggling became common. Most New England farms were small. New Englanders in the larger towns did own slaves and often hired them out. Sometimes slaves were allowed to keep part of their wages, which they often saved to buy their freedom. New England became home to more free blacks than any other region. The Puritan religion declined in the 1700s. One reason was that the drive for economic gain competed with Puritan ideas. Another reason was that other religious groups competed with Puritans for new members. Also, England had given Massachusetts a new royal charter in 1691. It gave religious freedom to groups besides the Puritans. It also granted the right to vote based on property ownership instead of church membership. Non-church members now had power.
Section 2: The Middle Colonies: Farms and Cities
Main Idea: The people who settled in the Middle Colonies made a society of great diversity. The soil of the Middle Colonies was better for farming than in New England and the growing season was longer. These conditions attracted European immigrants. Dutch and German farmers brought advanced farming methods. The Middle Colonies began to produce cash crops. Cash crops—unlike those from subsistence farming—are raised to be sold. After harvesting their corn, wheat, rye, or other grains, farmers took them to a gristmill. There they were ground into flour. Colonists built gristmills along the region’s many rivers. They used the force of the flowing water to power the mills.
The excellent harbors along the coasts of the Middle Colonies were perfect sites for cities. Philadelphia, on the Delaware River, grew the fastest. It prospered from trade in cash crops. The busy port of New York, on the Hudson River, owed its growth to trade in flour, bread, furs, and whale oil. The populations of the port cities soon showed great diversity—ethnic variety. After the English, the Germans were the largest group. Germans arrived between 1710 and 1740. Most came as indentured servants. Among them were many skillful farmers and artisans. The Middle Colonies also became home to the Dutch, African, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Swedish, French, and Scots-Irish people. The Dutch in New York and the Quakers in Pennsylvania practiced religious tolerance. Quakers also insisted on the equality of men and women. They were the first to raise their voices against slavery. Quaker ideals eventually influenced the whole nation. In 1750, about seven percent of the Middle Colonies’ population was enslaved. New York City had more people of African descent than any other Northern colonial city. In 1712, a group of about 24 rebellious slaves killed nine settlers and wounded several others. Armed colonists caught the suspects and punished them horribly. Even so, slave rebellions continued to occur.
Section 3: The Southern Colonies: Plantations and Slavery
Main Idea: The economy of the Southern Colonies relied heavily on slave labor. The soil and almost year-round growing season in the southern colonies were ideal for plantation crops such as rice and tobacco. These crops required much labor. In the 1660s, planters began using more enslaved Africans on their plantations. One reason was that indentured servants were leaving plantations to start their own farms. Another was that planters were not successful in forcing Native Americans to work on the plantations. By 1750, enslaved Africans made up about 40 percent of the South’s population. Plantations expanded in South Carolina and Georgia. Plantation owners, or the planter class, held most of the political and economic power in the South. Planters in the lowlands bought slaves from West Africa to grow rice. Eliza Lucas introduced indigo as a successful plantation crop on her father’s South Carolina plantation. The indigo plant yields a deep blue dye. On large Southern plantations, slaves worked in groups of about 20 to 25. Planters hired overseers to work the slaves. Slaves were often whipped. They usually lived in small, poorly furnished cabins and were given inadequate food. Nevertheless, African customs and beliefs survived and became the basis of African-American culture. Africans fought against their enslavement and at times openly rebelled. In September of 1739, about 20 slaves killed several planter families near Charles Town. Many of the slaves then were captured and killed by a militia. Rebellions such as the Stono Rebellion led planters to make slave laws even stricter.
Section 4: The Backcountry
Main Idea: Settlers moved to the Backcountry because land was cheap and plentiful. The Backcountry was located in or near the Appalachian Mountains. Its resources included springs, streams, and forests. In the South, the Backcountry began at the fall line—where waterfalls prevent large boats from moving upriver. Beyond the fall line lay the piedmont—an area at the foot of a mountain or mountain range. The first European settlers in the Backcountry made a living trading with Native Americans. They paid for goods with deerskins. A unit of value was one buckskin, or a “buck.” Then farmers came and built log cabins. Settlers began to clash with the Native Americans. In the 1700s, a new group of immigrants—the Scots-Irish—arrived. They came from the border between Scotland and England, where they had endured many hardships. The Scots-Irish brought their clan system with them. Clans are large groups of families that claim a common ancestor. In the Backcountry, rough roads and rivers made it hard to move goods. Backcountry farmers had to learn to depend on themselves. They built cabins and made rough furniture from logs. They ate hogs, cattle, fish, game, and corn. Backcountry women worked in the fields, as well as in the home. They learned to use guns and axes. The desire for land led many Backcountry settlers to move westward. These settlers encountered the French and Spanish, as well as Native Americans. Conflicts were common, as Native Americans tried to protect their land. Conflicts over land also arose between English settlers and French fur traders. Spanish settlers, who lived in what is now Florida, Texas, and California, were farmers, ranchers, and priests. The priests established missions to convert Native Americans. Forts were built near the missions to protect them.
Chapter 5 The American Identity (1689-1763)
Chapter 5: Beginning of an American Identity 1689–1763
Section 1: Early American Culture
Main Idea: The British colonies were shaped by prosperity, literacy, and new movements in religion and thought. Land ownership in the colonies was the means to wealth. Wealth, in turn, determined social standing. Most colonists were in the middle ranks. The wealthiest people were in the highest ranks. Owning land brought political power by giving men the right to vote. Most colonial white women were farm wives. They tended gardens and farm animals, and made clothing. They often bartered, or traded, with their neighbors. Enslaved black women helped raise cash crops. In the cities, women sometimes practiced trades. Despite their role in the economy, women could not vote or own property. Large families were common, because more children meant more workers. Many boys became apprentices, meaning that they learned a trade by working with an experienced craftsman. Colonial schooling emphasized religion. Being able to read the Bible was the main reason for teaching children to read. Children learned at home or attended schools taught by women. Wealthy children had tutors or attended private schools. Between 50 and 85 percent of colonial men were literate, and about half as many white women were. Most African Americans could not read, and slaves were forbidden an education. Colonists published almost 80 different newspapers. They also published poetry, history, and life stories. Almanacs, which usually contained a calendar, weather predictions, and farming advice, were especially popular. In 1682, Mary Rowlandson published a bestselling captivity narrative. Captivity narratives described the experiences of colonists who had been captured by Native American tribes and were living among them. In the 1730s and ‘40s, a religious movement called the Great Awakening took place. Its ministers preached that inner religious feelings were more important than outward behavior. Two of its best-known preachers were Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. The movement stirred up ideas of equality and the right to challenge authority. It also caused a split in the church. The Enlightenment was a movement that valued reason and science. This movement began in Europe, as scientists learned about natural laws, such as gravity, that controlled the universe. Other Enlightenment thinkers applied the idea of natural law to human societies. The English philosopher John Locke argued that people have natural rights and that governments are created to protect these rights. His ideas later led colonists to break away from England. Ben Franklin was a famous American Enlightenment figure.
Section 2: Roots of Representative Government
Main Idea: Colonists expected their government to preserve their basic rights as English subjects. Long before the colonies were founded, English people expected certain rights. In 1215, England’s King John signed the Magna Carta, which guaranteed certain rights. It stated that people could not be put on trial without witnesses and could only be punished by a jury of their peers. The Magna Carta also prevented the king from seizing property and limited his right to tax. The colonists modeled their government on Parliament, England’s chief lawmaking body. Parliament is made up of two houses. Members of one house, the House of Commons, are elected by the people. Similarly, American colonists elected their own assemblies, which gave them some self-rule. Nevertheless, the English king and Parliament still had power over them. James II became England’s king in 1685. He combined Massachusetts and other northern colonies into the Dominion of New England and named Edmund Andros as its governor. Andros angered the colonists by ending their representative assemblies.
Soon, however, a change in England’s leadership occurred. Fearing the Catholicism of
King James, Parliament’s leaders offered the throne to the king’s Protestant daughter,
Mary, and her husband, William of Orange. They accepted and King James fled. This
change is called the Glorious Revolution. William and Mary soon signed the English Bill of Rights, which stated that the government was to be based on laws made by Parliament. The Bill strengthened the rights of the English people. The colonists quickly claimed these rights. They jailed Governor Andros and asked Parliament to reinstate their old government. After the Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts colonists could again elect representatives to an assembly. Their governor, however, was still chosen by the crown. During the first half of the 1700s, England maintained a policy of salutary neglect towards the colonists. Salutary neglect means “leaving alone in a helpful way.” In 1735, John Peter Zenger was tried for publishing criticism of the government. Zenger published the New-York Weekly Journal, in which New York’s governor was criticized. Zenger’s lawyer argued that people had the right to speak the truth. When Zenger was set free, the colonists moved closer to gaining freedom of the press.
Section 3: The French and Indian War
Main Idea: Britain’s victory in the French and Indian War forced France to give up its
North American colonies. France and England were rivals in the American colonies. They competed for land and for furs. The English settled North America’s eastern coast. By the late 1600s, the French had claimed the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, as well as the entire Great Lakes region. The fur trade created alliances between the Europeans and their Native American trading partners. By the 1750s, British traders and settlers also wanted part of the fur trade in the Ohio River valley. The colony of Virginia also claimed the area and built a fort at the head of the Ohio River. Soon the French took over the fort, calling it Fort Duquesne. Then, Washington’s forces built a second fort, called Fort Necessity. On July 3, 1754, the French and their Native American allies started the French and Indian War by attacking Fort Necessity. Washington surrendered. This war became part of the Seven Years’ War between France and Britain. Meanwhile, Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan that the British colonies band together for defense. He called it the Albany Plan of Union. The colonial legislatures turned down the plan. In 1755, British forces under General Edward Braddock attacked Fort Duquesne. Although the British numbered 2,100 men, they were defeated by fewer than 900 French and Native American troops. Then, in 1757, William Pitt, Britain’s new secretary of state, sent top British generals to America. He also paid American colonial troops to fight. In 1759, British troops captured Quebec, the capital of New France. The Battle of Quebec was the turning point of the French and Indian War. This “Seven Years’ War” ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris ended. France gave up most of its land in North America, while Britain claimed almost all of North America east of the Mississippi.
France gave New Orleans and Louisiana to Spain, who had been France’s ally during the war. Spain also took back Cuba and the Philippines from Britain in exchange for Florida. In 1763, Native Americans attacked British forts and settlers. The Native Americans were angry because British soldiers would not give them supplies. Also, British settlers had moved onto their land. These attacks are known as Pontiac’s Rebellion named after one of the Ottawa war leaders. The rebellion made the British government realize that defending Western lands would be costly. Parliament issued the Proclamation of 1763, forbidding colonists to settle west of the Appalachians. This made the colonists angry.
Section 1: Early American Culture
Main Idea: The British colonies were shaped by prosperity, literacy, and new movements in religion and thought. Land ownership in the colonies was the means to wealth. Wealth, in turn, determined social standing. Most colonists were in the middle ranks. The wealthiest people were in the highest ranks. Owning land brought political power by giving men the right to vote. Most colonial white women were farm wives. They tended gardens and farm animals, and made clothing. They often bartered, or traded, with their neighbors. Enslaved black women helped raise cash crops. In the cities, women sometimes practiced trades. Despite their role in the economy, women could not vote or own property. Large families were common, because more children meant more workers. Many boys became apprentices, meaning that they learned a trade by working with an experienced craftsman. Colonial schooling emphasized religion. Being able to read the Bible was the main reason for teaching children to read. Children learned at home or attended schools taught by women. Wealthy children had tutors or attended private schools. Between 50 and 85 percent of colonial men were literate, and about half as many white women were. Most African Americans could not read, and slaves were forbidden an education. Colonists published almost 80 different newspapers. They also published poetry, history, and life stories. Almanacs, which usually contained a calendar, weather predictions, and farming advice, were especially popular. In 1682, Mary Rowlandson published a bestselling captivity narrative. Captivity narratives described the experiences of colonists who had been captured by Native American tribes and were living among them. In the 1730s and ‘40s, a religious movement called the Great Awakening took place. Its ministers preached that inner religious feelings were more important than outward behavior. Two of its best-known preachers were Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. The movement stirred up ideas of equality and the right to challenge authority. It also caused a split in the church. The Enlightenment was a movement that valued reason and science. This movement began in Europe, as scientists learned about natural laws, such as gravity, that controlled the universe. Other Enlightenment thinkers applied the idea of natural law to human societies. The English philosopher John Locke argued that people have natural rights and that governments are created to protect these rights. His ideas later led colonists to break away from England. Ben Franklin was a famous American Enlightenment figure.
Section 2: Roots of Representative Government
Main Idea: Colonists expected their government to preserve their basic rights as English subjects. Long before the colonies were founded, English people expected certain rights. In 1215, England’s King John signed the Magna Carta, which guaranteed certain rights. It stated that people could not be put on trial without witnesses and could only be punished by a jury of their peers. The Magna Carta also prevented the king from seizing property and limited his right to tax. The colonists modeled their government on Parliament, England’s chief lawmaking body. Parliament is made up of two houses. Members of one house, the House of Commons, are elected by the people. Similarly, American colonists elected their own assemblies, which gave them some self-rule. Nevertheless, the English king and Parliament still had power over them. James II became England’s king in 1685. He combined Massachusetts and other northern colonies into the Dominion of New England and named Edmund Andros as its governor. Andros angered the colonists by ending their representative assemblies.
Soon, however, a change in England’s leadership occurred. Fearing the Catholicism of
King James, Parliament’s leaders offered the throne to the king’s Protestant daughter,
Mary, and her husband, William of Orange. They accepted and King James fled. This
change is called the Glorious Revolution. William and Mary soon signed the English Bill of Rights, which stated that the government was to be based on laws made by Parliament. The Bill strengthened the rights of the English people. The colonists quickly claimed these rights. They jailed Governor Andros and asked Parliament to reinstate their old government. After the Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts colonists could again elect representatives to an assembly. Their governor, however, was still chosen by the crown. During the first half of the 1700s, England maintained a policy of salutary neglect towards the colonists. Salutary neglect means “leaving alone in a helpful way.” In 1735, John Peter Zenger was tried for publishing criticism of the government. Zenger published the New-York Weekly Journal, in which New York’s governor was criticized. Zenger’s lawyer argued that people had the right to speak the truth. When Zenger was set free, the colonists moved closer to gaining freedom of the press.
Section 3: The French and Indian War
Main Idea: Britain’s victory in the French and Indian War forced France to give up its
North American colonies. France and England were rivals in the American colonies. They competed for land and for furs. The English settled North America’s eastern coast. By the late 1600s, the French had claimed the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, as well as the entire Great Lakes region. The fur trade created alliances between the Europeans and their Native American trading partners. By the 1750s, British traders and settlers also wanted part of the fur trade in the Ohio River valley. The colony of Virginia also claimed the area and built a fort at the head of the Ohio River. Soon the French took over the fort, calling it Fort Duquesne. Then, Washington’s forces built a second fort, called Fort Necessity. On July 3, 1754, the French and their Native American allies started the French and Indian War by attacking Fort Necessity. Washington surrendered. This war became part of the Seven Years’ War between France and Britain. Meanwhile, Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan that the British colonies band together for defense. He called it the Albany Plan of Union. The colonial legislatures turned down the plan. In 1755, British forces under General Edward Braddock attacked Fort Duquesne. Although the British numbered 2,100 men, they were defeated by fewer than 900 French and Native American troops. Then, in 1757, William Pitt, Britain’s new secretary of state, sent top British generals to America. He also paid American colonial troops to fight. In 1759, British troops captured Quebec, the capital of New France. The Battle of Quebec was the turning point of the French and Indian War. This “Seven Years’ War” ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris ended. France gave up most of its land in North America, while Britain claimed almost all of North America east of the Mississippi.
France gave New Orleans and Louisiana to Spain, who had been France’s ally during the war. Spain also took back Cuba and the Philippines from Britain in exchange for Florida. In 1763, Native Americans attacked British forts and settlers. The Native Americans were angry because British soldiers would not give them supplies. Also, British settlers had moved onto their land. These attacks are known as Pontiac’s Rebellion named after one of the Ottawa war leaders. The rebellion made the British government realize that defending Western lands would be costly. Parliament issued the Proclamation of 1763, forbidding colonists to settle west of the Appalachians. This made the colonists angry.
Chapter 6 The Road to Revolution (1763-1776)
Chapter 6: The Road to Revolution, 1763–1776
Section 1: Tighter British Control
Main Idea: Americans saw British efforts to tax them and to increase control over the colonies as violations of their rights. After the French and Indian War, the British Parliament passed the Proclamation Act of 1763. This law said that colonists could not move west of the Appalachian Mountains. The purpose of the act was to keep peace with the Native Americans. Many colonists settled the area despite the act. In 1764, Parliament passed the Quartering Act, which required colonists to supply and house, or quarter, British troops. To raise revenue, or income, Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764. This law placed a tax on sugar, molasses, and other products shipped to the colonies. By passing this law, Parliament voted to tax the colonists directly. In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which required the colonists to buy and place stamps on many goods such as diplomas, contracts, and newspapers. Along with other colonial leaders, Patrick Henry protested. The colonists believed that they were being taxed unfairly because they had no voice in Parliament. The colonists protested "taxation without representation." At the Stamp Act Congress, they drew up a petition to the king to protest the Stamp Act. Colonial merchants organized a boycott, or a refusal, to buy British goods. Some colonists joined the Sons of Liberty and other secret groups that actively protested British policies. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act in 1766. But it soon passed the Declaratory Act, a law stating that Parliament had the right to govern and tax the colonies.
Section 2: Colonial Resistance Grows
Main Idea: Many Americans began to organize to oppose British policies. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts. These acts stated that New York’s legislative assembly could not meet until the colonists agreed to house British troops. The Townshend Acts also placed taxes on certain goods brought into the colonies. To enforce the acts, British officers used "writs of assistance." These search warrants allowed the officers to search for smuggled goods in the homes or businesses of the colonists. The colonists felt that the Townshend Acts threatened their rights and freedoms. Samuel Adams, a leader of the Boston Sons of Liberty, led the colonists in protesting the acts. The colonists called for a boycott of British goods. As a result, trade with Britain dropped off. When British officials tried to search the merchant ship Liberty for smuggled goods, riots broke out. This led the British to request that more troops be sent to the colonies. In 1768, about 1,000 additional British soldiers arrived in Boston. Tensions mounted. Then, on March 5, 1770, violence broke out between British soldiers and some colonists. The soldiers fired on the colonists, killing an African-American sailor named Crispus Attucks and four other men. John Adams defended the soldiers on the grounds that they acted in self-defense. The jury agreed. After this incident, called the Boston Massacre, Parliament did away with all taxes except the one on tea. Despite the easing of tensions, Samuel Adams helped form "committees of correspondence." These committees worked in various Massachusetts towns for freedom. Soon the groups began exchanging letters with committees formed in other colonies. In 1773, Britain passed the Tea Act. This law gave a British company the right to control the tea trade. The colonists protested. On December 16, 1773, a group of colonists dressed as Native Americans boarded three tea ships. They dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor, an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party.
Section 3: The Road to Lexington and Concord
Main Idea: The tensions between Britain and the colonies led to armed conflict in Massachusetts. In 1774, Parliament passed a group of laws designed to punish Massachusetts. The colonists called these laws the Intolerable Acts. One law closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for the tea they ruined. Another banned the "committees of correspondence." A third allowed Britain to house troops wherever it was convenient. The colonists held the First Continental Congress in September, 1774. Its representatives voted to stop all trade with Britain until Parliament repealed the Intolerable Acts. Britain sent more troops to the colonies. By the end of 1774, some colonists formed militias. A militia was a force of armed civilians who pledged to defend their community. Some of the militia were called Minutemen, because they were trained to be ready at a minute’s notice. British and the colonists began to spy on each other. When the British learned that Massachusetts colonists had guns and ammunition stored at Lexington and Concord, they sent troops to investigate. The Sons of Liberty were prepared. Paul Revere and William Dawes, both members, galloped over the countryside warning the colonists. Dr. Samuel Prescott also joined them. British troops reached Lexington on April 19, 1775. There, eight Americans were killed when they refused to drop their weapons. At Concord a battle broke out, and the militia forced the British to retreat. Lexington and Concord were the first battles of the Revolutionary War. Forced to choose sides, colonists who sided with the British were called Loyalists. Those who sided with the colonial rebels were called Patriots.
Section 4: Declaring Independence
Main Idea: Fighting between American and British troops led the colonies to declare their independence. The British moved back into Boston. Meanwhile, colonial rebel Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys captured the British fort, Fort Ticonderoga, in New York. On the same day, colonial leaders at the Second Continental Congress made George Washington the commanding general of the Continental Army. At the Battle of Bunker Hill near Boston, the British won but suffered heavy losses. Most colonists still hoped for peace. King George, however, rejected their Olive Branch Petition, which asked him to restore peace. Soon afterwards, the Continental Army surrounded British forces in Boston. As a result, the British moved out of the city. In 1775, Benedict Arnold led colonial militia in an attack on Canada. When the attack failed, the Americans returned home. In early 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense. In this pamphlet, Paine argued for independence from Britain. Many colonists became convinced to join the fight for independence after reading Common Sense. On July 2nd, 1776, the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. The resolution stated that all political ties between the colonies and Britain were ended. On July 4th, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the document is based on the ideas of John Locke. The Declaration explains why the American people had decided to break away from Britain. It also states that all people have certain unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Because the British government had taken away these rights from the colonists, the Declaration states that Americans had the right to form a new government. Also listed are 27 grievances, or offenses, by the British king and others against the colonies. This list helps to explain why it became necessary to seek independence. Finally, the Declaration of Independence declares the colonies free and independent states, with no loyalty to Britain or the king. Fifty-six representatives from the thirteen original states signed the Declaration.
Section 1: Tighter British Control
Main Idea: Americans saw British efforts to tax them and to increase control over the colonies as violations of their rights. After the French and Indian War, the British Parliament passed the Proclamation Act of 1763. This law said that colonists could not move west of the Appalachian Mountains. The purpose of the act was to keep peace with the Native Americans. Many colonists settled the area despite the act. In 1764, Parliament passed the Quartering Act, which required colonists to supply and house, or quarter, British troops. To raise revenue, or income, Parliament passed the Sugar Act in 1764. This law placed a tax on sugar, molasses, and other products shipped to the colonies. By passing this law, Parliament voted to tax the colonists directly. In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which required the colonists to buy and place stamps on many goods such as diplomas, contracts, and newspapers. Along with other colonial leaders, Patrick Henry protested. The colonists believed that they were being taxed unfairly because they had no voice in Parliament. The colonists protested "taxation without representation." At the Stamp Act Congress, they drew up a petition to the king to protest the Stamp Act. Colonial merchants organized a boycott, or a refusal, to buy British goods. Some colonists joined the Sons of Liberty and other secret groups that actively protested British policies. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act in 1766. But it soon passed the Declaratory Act, a law stating that Parliament had the right to govern and tax the colonies.
Section 2: Colonial Resistance Grows
Main Idea: Many Americans began to organize to oppose British policies. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts. These acts stated that New York’s legislative assembly could not meet until the colonists agreed to house British troops. The Townshend Acts also placed taxes on certain goods brought into the colonies. To enforce the acts, British officers used "writs of assistance." These search warrants allowed the officers to search for smuggled goods in the homes or businesses of the colonists. The colonists felt that the Townshend Acts threatened their rights and freedoms. Samuel Adams, a leader of the Boston Sons of Liberty, led the colonists in protesting the acts. The colonists called for a boycott of British goods. As a result, trade with Britain dropped off. When British officials tried to search the merchant ship Liberty for smuggled goods, riots broke out. This led the British to request that more troops be sent to the colonies. In 1768, about 1,000 additional British soldiers arrived in Boston. Tensions mounted. Then, on March 5, 1770, violence broke out between British soldiers and some colonists. The soldiers fired on the colonists, killing an African-American sailor named Crispus Attucks and four other men. John Adams defended the soldiers on the grounds that they acted in self-defense. The jury agreed. After this incident, called the Boston Massacre, Parliament did away with all taxes except the one on tea. Despite the easing of tensions, Samuel Adams helped form "committees of correspondence." These committees worked in various Massachusetts towns for freedom. Soon the groups began exchanging letters with committees formed in other colonies. In 1773, Britain passed the Tea Act. This law gave a British company the right to control the tea trade. The colonists protested. On December 16, 1773, a group of colonists dressed as Native Americans boarded three tea ships. They dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor, an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party.
Section 3: The Road to Lexington and Concord
Main Idea: The tensions between Britain and the colonies led to armed conflict in Massachusetts. In 1774, Parliament passed a group of laws designed to punish Massachusetts. The colonists called these laws the Intolerable Acts. One law closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for the tea they ruined. Another banned the "committees of correspondence." A third allowed Britain to house troops wherever it was convenient. The colonists held the First Continental Congress in September, 1774. Its representatives voted to stop all trade with Britain until Parliament repealed the Intolerable Acts. Britain sent more troops to the colonies. By the end of 1774, some colonists formed militias. A militia was a force of armed civilians who pledged to defend their community. Some of the militia were called Minutemen, because they were trained to be ready at a minute’s notice. British and the colonists began to spy on each other. When the British learned that Massachusetts colonists had guns and ammunition stored at Lexington and Concord, they sent troops to investigate. The Sons of Liberty were prepared. Paul Revere and William Dawes, both members, galloped over the countryside warning the colonists. Dr. Samuel Prescott also joined them. British troops reached Lexington on April 19, 1775. There, eight Americans were killed when they refused to drop their weapons. At Concord a battle broke out, and the militia forced the British to retreat. Lexington and Concord were the first battles of the Revolutionary War. Forced to choose sides, colonists who sided with the British were called Loyalists. Those who sided with the colonial rebels were called Patriots.
Section 4: Declaring Independence
Main Idea: Fighting between American and British troops led the colonies to declare their independence. The British moved back into Boston. Meanwhile, colonial rebel Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys captured the British fort, Fort Ticonderoga, in New York. On the same day, colonial leaders at the Second Continental Congress made George Washington the commanding general of the Continental Army. At the Battle of Bunker Hill near Boston, the British won but suffered heavy losses. Most colonists still hoped for peace. King George, however, rejected their Olive Branch Petition, which asked him to restore peace. Soon afterwards, the Continental Army surrounded British forces in Boston. As a result, the British moved out of the city. In 1775, Benedict Arnold led colonial militia in an attack on Canada. When the attack failed, the Americans returned home. In early 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense. In this pamphlet, Paine argued for independence from Britain. Many colonists became convinced to join the fight for independence after reading Common Sense. On July 2nd, 1776, the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. The resolution stated that all political ties between the colonies and Britain were ended. On July 4th, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the document is based on the ideas of John Locke. The Declaration explains why the American people had decided to break away from Britain. It also states that all people have certain unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Because the British government had taken away these rights from the colonists, the Declaration states that Americans had the right to form a new government. Also listed are 27 grievances, or offenses, by the British king and others against the colonies. This list helps to explain why it became necessary to seek independence. Finally, the Declaration of Independence declares the colonies free and independent states, with no loyalty to Britain or the king. Fifty-six representatives from the thirteen original states signed the Declaration.
Chapter 7 The American Revolution
Chapter 7: The American Revolution, 1776-1783
Section 1: The Early Years of the War
Main Idea: The American desire to gain rights and liberties led them to fight for independence from Britain. The issue of separating from Great Britain split the majority of Americans into two political groups—Loyalists and Patriots. Loyalists wanted to remain subjects to the King, Patriots wanted independence. A smaller group was neutral. In 1775, George Washington took command of the Continental Army. At first, the Continental Army was formed from state militias made up of untrained volunteers. Later, men enlisted. Washington’s main goal for his army was to survive.One British goal was to conquer cities on the coast. In July 1776, Britain’s General William Howe arrived in New York with a large army. The army included Hessian mercenaries—these were German soldiers hired to fight for Great Britain. By December, the British had forced the American army to cross the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. The winter weather was hard on the poorly supplied Americans. Then, on December 25, Washington led his troops back across the Delaware River. They surprised and defeated the Hessians at Trenton. The Americans gained needed supplies and soon won again at Princeton. The British strategy, or overall plan, was to seize the Hudson River Valley and cut off New England from other states. Three British armies were to meet at Albany, New York. Burgoyne and his troops would come from Canada, St. Leger from Lake Ontario, and Howe from New York City. Burgoyne’s army was late for its rendezvous, or meeting, at Albany. Howe defeated Washington at Philadelphia, but did not go to Albany. St. Leger’s army tried to capture Fort Stanwix in New York’s Mohawk River Valley. In August 1777, American general Benedict Arnold led a small army up the Mohawk River. Arnold spread a rumor that his army was large. This caused St. Leger to flee. He did not go to Albany. A raiding party from Burgoyne’s army went in search of supplies. American troops encountered the raiders and beat them in the Battle of Bennington in August of 1777. Nevertheless, Burgoyne’s army headed toward Albany. Near Saratoga, New York, it tried to break through fortifications built by American General Gates’s army. Within a few weeks, General Benedict Arnold led several attacks against Burgoyne’s troops. Burgoyne surrendered. The Battles of Saratoga were a turning point in the war. Unfortunately, General Arnold felt that Congress had not rewarded him enough. He eventually became a traitor.
Section 2: The War Expands
Main Idea: Some Europeans decided to help America. As the war continued, fighting spread to the sea and to the frontier. France decided to become America’s ally. The French king recognized U.S. independence and sent funds, supplies, and troops to America. In 1779, Spain also decided to help. By entering the war, France and Spain forced the British to fight several enemies at once. The Marquis de Lafayette, a French nobleman, commanded an army division in Washington’s army. He fought many battles, and the Germans—Baron de Kalb and Baron von Steuben—also helped the American army. In late 1777, Britain’s General Howe forced Washington to retreat from Philadelphia. That winter, Washington and his army camped at Valley Forge. They were short on supplies. Many soldiers died from malnutrition, exposure to the cold, and from various diseases. Also in 1777, George Rogers Clark raised an army to defend the Western frontier. He and his men captured Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River and a British fort at Vincennes. British warships controlled the Atlantic trade routes. Often, American privateers would attack British merchant ships. A privateer was a privately owned ship that was permitted to attack enemy merchant ships. Privateers captured hundreds of British ships. James Forten was a 14-year-old African-American sailor on a privateer. Later, he became famous for his efforts to end slavery. Although the British had more ships, the Continental Navy scored many victories. John Paul Jones, a U.S. officer who commanded the Bonhomme Richard, won the most famous sea battle of the war.
Section 3: The Path to Victory
Main Idea: Seeking Loyalist support, the British invaded the South. Ultimately they lost the war there. The British invaded the South for three reasons: first, they thought Southern Loyalists would be able to hold any territory they gained in the South. Second, they expected large numbers of Southern slaves to join them, and, third, British troops in the British West Indies were stationed close to Southern seaports. The British captured most of the South, including Savannah, Georgia. In 1780, a British army trapped American forces in Charles Town. Five thousand Americans surrendered. General Gates formed a new Southern army. The army headed for Camden, South Carolina, to fight the British forces led by Lord Cornwallis. The American army met a band of Patriots led by Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox." When the British defeated Gates’s army near Camden in August 1780, Marion’s band freed a group of Americans taken prisoner. They also cut the British supply line. Marion and his men used surprise raids and hit-and-run attacks to fight the British. After Gates’s defeat, Washington put General Nathanael Greene, a former Quaker, in charge of the Southern army. Because the British had superior firepower, Greene avoided full-scale battles. Instead, American forces let the British chase them. Fighting dragged into its sixth year. In July 1781, the British general Cornwallis set up his base in Yorktown, Virginia. Yorktown is on a peninsula. In August of 1781, a French fleet blocked the Chesapeake Bay. This prevented the British from receiving supplies and from escaping. Then Washington and a large French force came from the North. Cornwallis was trapped. At the Battle of Yorktown, Cornwallis surrendered his 8,000 men. Yorktown was the last big battle of the Revolutionary War.
Section 4: The Legacy of War
Main Idea: After the war, the new nation faced issues such as a high national debt and demands for equality. There were four main reasons why the Americans won the war First, they had better leadership. Second, they received foreign aid. Third, they knew the land, and, fourth, they were more motivated. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the Revolutionary War. The treaty included six conditions: 1) The United States was an independent nation. 2) Its borders would be bound on the West by the Mississippi River, on the north by Canada, and on the south by Spanish Florida. 3) The United States would receive fishing rights off Canada’s Atlantic coast. 4) Each side would pay its debts to the other. 5) The British would return captured slaves, and 6) the states would return property seized from Loyalists. Neither country lived up to the agreements in the treaty. An estimated 25,700 Americans died in the war. About 1,400 were missing. About 8,200 were wounded. The war left the nation with a debt of about $27 million. Between 60,000 and 100,000 Loyalists left the United States. Most went to Canada. After declaring independence, Americans adopted republicanism, or rule by the people. Americans wanted more liberty and religious freedom. Some northern states outlawed slavery. Elizabeth Freeman won a case that helped end slavery in Massachusetts. Richard Allen helped begin the Free African Society and also started the African Methodist Episcopal Church. After the war, Americans faced an important issue. They needed to form a new government that would protect citizens’ rights and economic freedoms.
Main Idea: The American desire to gain rights and liberties led them to fight for independence from Britain. The issue of separating from Great Britain split the majority of Americans into two political groups—Loyalists and Patriots. Loyalists wanted to remain subjects to the King, Patriots wanted independence. A smaller group was neutral. In 1775, George Washington took command of the Continental Army. At first, the Continental Army was formed from state militias made up of untrained volunteers. Later, men enlisted. Washington’s main goal for his army was to survive.One British goal was to conquer cities on the coast. In July 1776, Britain’s General William Howe arrived in New York with a large army. The army included Hessian mercenaries—these were German soldiers hired to fight for Great Britain. By December, the British had forced the American army to cross the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. The winter weather was hard on the poorly supplied Americans. Then, on December 25, Washington led his troops back across the Delaware River. They surprised and defeated the Hessians at Trenton. The Americans gained needed supplies and soon won again at Princeton. The British strategy, or overall plan, was to seize the Hudson River Valley and cut off New England from other states. Three British armies were to meet at Albany, New York. Burgoyne and his troops would come from Canada, St. Leger from Lake Ontario, and Howe from New York City. Burgoyne’s army was late for its rendezvous, or meeting, at Albany. Howe defeated Washington at Philadelphia, but did not go to Albany. St. Leger’s army tried to capture Fort Stanwix in New York’s Mohawk River Valley. In August 1777, American general Benedict Arnold led a small army up the Mohawk River. Arnold spread a rumor that his army was large. This caused St. Leger to flee. He did not go to Albany. A raiding party from Burgoyne’s army went in search of supplies. American troops encountered the raiders and beat them in the Battle of Bennington in August of 1777. Nevertheless, Burgoyne’s army headed toward Albany. Near Saratoga, New York, it tried to break through fortifications built by American General Gates’s army. Within a few weeks, General Benedict Arnold led several attacks against Burgoyne’s troops. Burgoyne surrendered. The Battles of Saratoga were a turning point in the war. Unfortunately, General Arnold felt that Congress had not rewarded him enough. He eventually became a traitor.
Section 2: The War Expands
Main Idea: Some Europeans decided to help America. As the war continued, fighting spread to the sea and to the frontier. France decided to become America’s ally. The French king recognized U.S. independence and sent funds, supplies, and troops to America. In 1779, Spain also decided to help. By entering the war, France and Spain forced the British to fight several enemies at once. The Marquis de Lafayette, a French nobleman, commanded an army division in Washington’s army. He fought many battles, and the Germans—Baron de Kalb and Baron von Steuben—also helped the American army. In late 1777, Britain’s General Howe forced Washington to retreat from Philadelphia. That winter, Washington and his army camped at Valley Forge. They were short on supplies. Many soldiers died from malnutrition, exposure to the cold, and from various diseases. Also in 1777, George Rogers Clark raised an army to defend the Western frontier. He and his men captured Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River and a British fort at Vincennes. British warships controlled the Atlantic trade routes. Often, American privateers would attack British merchant ships. A privateer was a privately owned ship that was permitted to attack enemy merchant ships. Privateers captured hundreds of British ships. James Forten was a 14-year-old African-American sailor on a privateer. Later, he became famous for his efforts to end slavery. Although the British had more ships, the Continental Navy scored many victories. John Paul Jones, a U.S. officer who commanded the Bonhomme Richard, won the most famous sea battle of the war.
Section 3: The Path to Victory
Main Idea: Seeking Loyalist support, the British invaded the South. Ultimately they lost the war there. The British invaded the South for three reasons: first, they thought Southern Loyalists would be able to hold any territory they gained in the South. Second, they expected large numbers of Southern slaves to join them, and, third, British troops in the British West Indies were stationed close to Southern seaports. The British captured most of the South, including Savannah, Georgia. In 1780, a British army trapped American forces in Charles Town. Five thousand Americans surrendered. General Gates formed a new Southern army. The army headed for Camden, South Carolina, to fight the British forces led by Lord Cornwallis. The American army met a band of Patriots led by Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox." When the British defeated Gates’s army near Camden in August 1780, Marion’s band freed a group of Americans taken prisoner. They also cut the British supply line. Marion and his men used surprise raids and hit-and-run attacks to fight the British. After Gates’s defeat, Washington put General Nathanael Greene, a former Quaker, in charge of the Southern army. Because the British had superior firepower, Greene avoided full-scale battles. Instead, American forces let the British chase them. Fighting dragged into its sixth year. In July 1781, the British general Cornwallis set up his base in Yorktown, Virginia. Yorktown is on a peninsula. In August of 1781, a French fleet blocked the Chesapeake Bay. This prevented the British from receiving supplies and from escaping. Then Washington and a large French force came from the North. Cornwallis was trapped. At the Battle of Yorktown, Cornwallis surrendered his 8,000 men. Yorktown was the last big battle of the Revolutionary War.
Section 4: The Legacy of War
Main Idea: After the war, the new nation faced issues such as a high national debt and demands for equality. There were four main reasons why the Americans won the war First, they had better leadership. Second, they received foreign aid. Third, they knew the land, and, fourth, they were more motivated. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the Revolutionary War. The treaty included six conditions: 1) The United States was an independent nation. 2) Its borders would be bound on the West by the Mississippi River, on the north by Canada, and on the south by Spanish Florida. 3) The United States would receive fishing rights off Canada’s Atlantic coast. 4) Each side would pay its debts to the other. 5) The British would return captured slaves, and 6) the states would return property seized from Loyalists. Neither country lived up to the agreements in the treaty. An estimated 25,700 Americans died in the war. About 1,400 were missing. About 8,200 were wounded. The war left the nation with a debt of about $27 million. Between 60,000 and 100,000 Loyalists left the United States. Most went to Canada. After declaring independence, Americans adopted republicanism, or rule by the people. Americans wanted more liberty and religious freedom. Some northern states outlawed slavery. Elizabeth Freeman won a case that helped end slavery in Massachusetts. Richard Allen helped begin the Free African Society and also started the African Methodist Episcopal Church. After the war, Americans faced an important issue. They needed to form a new government that would protect citizens’ rights and economic freedoms.
Chapter 8 Confederation to Constitution (1776-1791)
Chapter 8: Confederation to Constitution 1776-1791
Section 1: The Confederation Era
Main Idea: The Articles of Confederation were too weak to govern the nation after the Revolutionary War ended. In 1775, Daniel Boone and 30 others helped to build the Wilderness Road, which ran westward over the Appalachian Mountains into Kentucky. Native Americans hunted, fished, and lived in the Kentucky region. The movement of settlers there led to violence between the Native Americans and the settlers. Nevertheless, by 1790, about 100,000 settlers lived there. After the colonies became independent, each state created its own government. Some states created governments with separate branches. Some included a bill of rights as part of the constitution. All the states set up republican forms of government, with representatives chosen by the people. In 1776, the Continental Congress agreed on a plan called the Articles of Confederation. It gave much power to the states and little power to the national government. The government was run by a Confederation Congress. Each state had one vote. Under the Articles of Confederation, taxation and most other important powers were left to the states. The states also controlled the Western lands. In 1778, eight states had ratified the Articles of Confederation. But some of the small states that did not have Western territories refused to sign. They felt that states that had Western territories would have an advantage. But by 1781, all of the states had given up the Western claims and accepted the Articles. Congress passed laws on how to divide and govern the Western lands. The Land Ordinance of 1785 staked out six-mile square plots, called townships. These lands later became the Northwest Territory. It included land that formed the states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. The Northwest Ordinance described how the Northwest Territory was to be governed. It also established settlers’ rights. This law set an important pattern for the orderly growth of the United States. The Confederation Congress faced problems, especially debt. The Congress had borrowed large amounts of money during the Revolutionary War. Much of the money was owed to soldiers of its own army. Because Congress did not have the power to levy taxes, it depended on the states to send money. But the states had little money to send. In Massachusetts, farmers fell deeply into debt. Taxes in Massachusetts were very high. Those who could not pay their debts lost their land and were jailed. In 1787, farmers in Massachusetts asked the state legislature for relief from their debts. The legislature refused. The farmers rebelled, led by Daniel Shays. The rebellion became known as Shays’s Rebellion. The Massachusetts militia killed four protesters. The protesters were defeated, but won the sympathy of many Americans. Many people felt that the nation needed to have a stronger national government to help solve its problems.
Section 2: Creating the Constitution
Main Idea: The states sent delegates to a convention to solve the problems of the Articles of Confederation. In September 1786, delegates from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland. They wanted to create national trade laws, which first required amending the Articles of Confederation. The following May, 12 states sent delegates to Philadelphia. Fifty-five delegates came to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. About 3/4 had been representatives to the Continental Congress. America’s most famous men were there—George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison. Madison had studied thoroughly to prepare for the meeting. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were not at the meeting because they were overseas. Patrick Henry refused to go because he opposed the Convention. No women, African Americans, or Native Americans were invited to participate in the Convention. The first order of business at the Convention was to elect a president. Every single delegate voted for George Washington. Next, the delegates had to decide on the rules for the Convention. The delegates decided that in order for everyone to speak freely and not be pressured by the politics of the time, the discussions would remain secret. The first speaker at the Convention, Virginia’s Edmund Randolph, proposed the Virginia Plan. It called for three branches of government. The legislature would be made up of two houses. The number of representatives from each state would be based on the state’s population. The larger states supported the plan. The smaller states opposed it, because they believed that the larger states would have more power. New Jersey delegate William Paterson presented an alternative plan. The New Jersey Plan called for a one-house legislature in which each state would have one vote. After some debate, the Virginia Plan won. The Great Compromise solved the problem of representation. According to the compromise, the House of Representatives would be based on state populations. In the Senate, each state would have an equal number of votes. Next the Convention had to decide who would be counted in the population of each state. After some debate, the delegates reached the Three-Fifths Compromise. It said that 3/5 of the slave population would be counted to determine representation in the legislature and to determine taxation. The Convention also agreed that Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808. The delegates gave the national government the power to regulate trade. The national government could pass laws on how goods could be exported. On September 15, 1787, all but three of the delegates voted to support the revised Constitution. Washington sent it to the Confederation Congress and Congress sent it to the states to be ratified.
Section 3: Ratifying the Constitution
Main Idea: Americans across the nations debated whether the Constitution would produce the best government. The framers of the Constitution knew that the Constitution would cause controversy. They began to campaign for its ratification. They explained that the new Constitution was based on federalism, a system in which the national government and state governments share power. The people who supported ratification were known as Federalists. Those who opposed the Constitution were known as Anti-federalists. The Federalists wrote and published essays in support of the Constitution. The best known essays are The Federalist papers, later published as a book called The Federalist. The authors of The Federalist papers were Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. Most of the newspapers supported the Constitution. As a result, they gave more publicity to the Federalists than to the Anti-federalists. Even so, opposition to ratification was strong in many areas. By late June 1788, nine states had ratified the Constitution. At Virginia’s convention, Patrick Henry and George Mason refused to sign the final document without a bill of rights. James Madison was also at Virginia’s convention. He suggested that Virginia ratify the Constitution and recommended that a bill of rights be added. New York followed Virginia’s example by ratifying the Constitution while calling for a bill of rights. Rhode Island became the last state to ratify the Constitution in 1790. By then, the new Congress had already written a bill of rights and submitted it to the states. James Madison, a member of the new Congress, proposed a set of amendments to the Constitution. Congress first edited, and then accepted, the amendments. As with the Constitution, three-fourths of the states had to ratify the amendments for them to take effect. In 1791, ten amendments were ratified and became law. They became known as the Bill of Rights.
Section 1: The Confederation Era
Main Idea: The Articles of Confederation were too weak to govern the nation after the Revolutionary War ended. In 1775, Daniel Boone and 30 others helped to build the Wilderness Road, which ran westward over the Appalachian Mountains into Kentucky. Native Americans hunted, fished, and lived in the Kentucky region. The movement of settlers there led to violence between the Native Americans and the settlers. Nevertheless, by 1790, about 100,000 settlers lived there. After the colonies became independent, each state created its own government. Some states created governments with separate branches. Some included a bill of rights as part of the constitution. All the states set up republican forms of government, with representatives chosen by the people. In 1776, the Continental Congress agreed on a plan called the Articles of Confederation. It gave much power to the states and little power to the national government. The government was run by a Confederation Congress. Each state had one vote. Under the Articles of Confederation, taxation and most other important powers were left to the states. The states also controlled the Western lands. In 1778, eight states had ratified the Articles of Confederation. But some of the small states that did not have Western territories refused to sign. They felt that states that had Western territories would have an advantage. But by 1781, all of the states had given up the Western claims and accepted the Articles. Congress passed laws on how to divide and govern the Western lands. The Land Ordinance of 1785 staked out six-mile square plots, called townships. These lands later became the Northwest Territory. It included land that formed the states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. The Northwest Ordinance described how the Northwest Territory was to be governed. It also established settlers’ rights. This law set an important pattern for the orderly growth of the United States. The Confederation Congress faced problems, especially debt. The Congress had borrowed large amounts of money during the Revolutionary War. Much of the money was owed to soldiers of its own army. Because Congress did not have the power to levy taxes, it depended on the states to send money. But the states had little money to send. In Massachusetts, farmers fell deeply into debt. Taxes in Massachusetts were very high. Those who could not pay their debts lost their land and were jailed. In 1787, farmers in Massachusetts asked the state legislature for relief from their debts. The legislature refused. The farmers rebelled, led by Daniel Shays. The rebellion became known as Shays’s Rebellion. The Massachusetts militia killed four protesters. The protesters were defeated, but won the sympathy of many Americans. Many people felt that the nation needed to have a stronger national government to help solve its problems.
Section 2: Creating the Constitution
Main Idea: The states sent delegates to a convention to solve the problems of the Articles of Confederation. In September 1786, delegates from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland. They wanted to create national trade laws, which first required amending the Articles of Confederation. The following May, 12 states sent delegates to Philadelphia. Fifty-five delegates came to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. About 3/4 had been representatives to the Continental Congress. America’s most famous men were there—George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison. Madison had studied thoroughly to prepare for the meeting. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were not at the meeting because they were overseas. Patrick Henry refused to go because he opposed the Convention. No women, African Americans, or Native Americans were invited to participate in the Convention. The first order of business at the Convention was to elect a president. Every single delegate voted for George Washington. Next, the delegates had to decide on the rules for the Convention. The delegates decided that in order for everyone to speak freely and not be pressured by the politics of the time, the discussions would remain secret. The first speaker at the Convention, Virginia’s Edmund Randolph, proposed the Virginia Plan. It called for three branches of government. The legislature would be made up of two houses. The number of representatives from each state would be based on the state’s population. The larger states supported the plan. The smaller states opposed it, because they believed that the larger states would have more power. New Jersey delegate William Paterson presented an alternative plan. The New Jersey Plan called for a one-house legislature in which each state would have one vote. After some debate, the Virginia Plan won. The Great Compromise solved the problem of representation. According to the compromise, the House of Representatives would be based on state populations. In the Senate, each state would have an equal number of votes. Next the Convention had to decide who would be counted in the population of each state. After some debate, the delegates reached the Three-Fifths Compromise. It said that 3/5 of the slave population would be counted to determine representation in the legislature and to determine taxation. The Convention also agreed that Congress could not ban the slave trade until 1808. The delegates gave the national government the power to regulate trade. The national government could pass laws on how goods could be exported. On September 15, 1787, all but three of the delegates voted to support the revised Constitution. Washington sent it to the Confederation Congress and Congress sent it to the states to be ratified.
Section 3: Ratifying the Constitution
Main Idea: Americans across the nations debated whether the Constitution would produce the best government. The framers of the Constitution knew that the Constitution would cause controversy. They began to campaign for its ratification. They explained that the new Constitution was based on federalism, a system in which the national government and state governments share power. The people who supported ratification were known as Federalists. Those who opposed the Constitution were known as Anti-federalists. The Federalists wrote and published essays in support of the Constitution. The best known essays are The Federalist papers, later published as a book called The Federalist. The authors of The Federalist papers were Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. Most of the newspapers supported the Constitution. As a result, they gave more publicity to the Federalists than to the Anti-federalists. Even so, opposition to ratification was strong in many areas. By late June 1788, nine states had ratified the Constitution. At Virginia’s convention, Patrick Henry and George Mason refused to sign the final document without a bill of rights. James Madison was also at Virginia’s convention. He suggested that Virginia ratify the Constitution and recommended that a bill of rights be added. New York followed Virginia’s example by ratifying the Constitution while calling for a bill of rights. Rhode Island became the last state to ratify the Constitution in 1790. By then, the new Congress had already written a bill of rights and submitted it to the states. James Madison, a member of the new Congress, proposed a set of amendments to the Constitution. Congress first edited, and then accepted, the amendments. As with the Constitution, three-fourths of the states had to ratify the amendments for them to take effect. In 1791, ten amendments were ratified and became law. They became known as the Bill of Rights.
Chapter 9 A New Republic (1789-1800)
Chapter 9: Launching a New Republic 1789–1800
Section 1 : Washington’s Presidency
Main Idea: The president and the Congress began to set up the new government.
George Washington was inaugurated as the nation’s first president in 1789. John Adams became vice-president. Washington faced a difficult task. He knew his actions as president would set an example for all future presidents.Congress passed the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789. With this act the Supreme Court was established to include a chief justice and five associate judges. Today, we have nine judges. The act also provided for other lower federal courts. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. The Constitution gave Congress the power to create departments to help the president. The president appointed the department heads, who became his cabinet. Washington chose Henry Knox as secretary of war, Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Edmund Randolph as attorney general, and Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury. As secretary of the treasury, Hamilton had to straighten out the nation’s finances. First, the government needed to pay its debts. By 1789, the national debt was more than $52 million. The following year, Hamilton proposed his financial plan to Congress: first, pay off all war debts; second, raise government revenues; and third, create a national bank. The issue of repayment of state war debts became controversial. Many southern states had
already repaid their debts and resented being asked to help pay northern states’ debts. The states eventually reached a compromise. The southern states would support the plan in exchange for placing the nation’s capital in the south. Washington, D.C. was built on the Potomac River between Virginia and Maryland. To raise revenue Hamilton favored tariffs—taxes on imported foreign goods. Tariffs raised money for the government and encouraged the growth of American industry. The last part of Hamilton’s plan—the creation of a national bank—would provide the government with a safe place to keep money. The bank also would make loans to
government and businesses, and issue bank notes. The resulting debate over Hamilton’s plan exposed differences about how to interpret the Constitution. Madison and Jefferson argued that the Constitution did not give the government the power to set up a bank. They believed that the government has only those powers that the Constitution clearly says it has. Hamilton believed that the Constitution could be more loosely interpreted. He argued that the bank was necessary to carry out the government’s duties. Hamilton won the debate, and the Bank of the United States was set up in 1791.
Section 2: Securing the Northwest Territory
Main Idea: Washington established central authority at home and avoided war with European powers. There was a interest in the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The 1783 Treaty of Paris tried to resolve land claims, but within a few years, Spain, Britain, the United States, and Native Americans each claimed parts of this area, known as the Trans-Appalachian West. Spain claimed much of North America west of the Mississippi, as well as Florida and the Port of New Orleans. New Orleans was key to trade for settlers in the West. The Spanish, however, threatened to close the port. In violation of the Treaty of Paris, the British held forts north of the Ohio River in the Northwest Territory. The Native Americans hoped to form an independent nation bordered by the Ohio River to the south and Canada to the north. They fiercely resisted settlement of their land. Washington sent troops under Anthony Wayne to the Ohio Valley in order to secure the Northwest. In the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne defeated the Native Americans. By signing the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, they agreed to surrender much of present-day Ohio and Indiana. A conflict arose over the government’s tax on whiskey. Farmers protested the tax. They could more easily carry whiskey than grain to market, where they traded it for other goods. In 1794, a group of farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled against the tax. Washington sent troops who crushed the “Whiskey Rebellion.” In 1789, French citizens began a revolution to overthrow their government. They wanted all people to have liberty and economic equality. As the struggle turned violent, King Louis XVI and thousands of French citizens were killed. Then, France declared war against Britain, Spain, and Holland. The war put the United States in an awkward position. France had been America’s ally in the American Revolution. A 1778 treaty bound France and the United States together. But many Americans thought that British trade was too important to the American economy to risk war. As a result, Washington decided that the United States would remain neutral and not take sides. Neutrality became difficult when Britain began seizing the cargoes of American ships in 1792. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to England to persuade the British to end the seizures. In Jay’s Treaty, the British agreed to pay damages for American vessels they had seized. They also agreed to give up their forts on the Northwest frontier by 1796. In 1795, Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain gave Americans the right to travel freely on the Mississippi River and to store goods at the port of New Orleans without paying custom
duties. Spain accepted the 31st parallel as the northern boundary of Florida and the southern boundary of the United States.
Section 3: The Federalists in Charge
Main Idea: The split between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the growth of political parties. Alexander Hamilton favored the British government and opposed the French Revolution. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison thought the opposite. Hamilton also wanted a strong central government. Jefferson and Madison thought such a government would lead to tyranny. Finally, Hamilton wanted an America in which trade, manufacturing, and cities grew. Jefferson and Madison wanted an America of planters and farmers. These issues led to debate and led the nation to form two political parties. Jefferson and Madison founded the Democratic-Republican Party. Hamilton and his friends formed the Federalist Party. In 1796, the Federalists chose John Adams as their candidate for President. The Democratic-Republicans chose Jefferson. Adams won the electoral vote. Since the Constitution said the runner-up should become vice-president, Jefferson became vice-president. After Washington left office in 1797, the French began seizing American ships to prevent them from trading with the British. Adams sent Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to Paris to meet with the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. Three agents—later referred to as X, Y,and Z—told the Americans that the French minister wanted the United States to loan France ten million dollars. The minister also wanted a bribe. The Americans refused. This incident became known as the XYZ Affair. In 1798, Congress canceled its treaty with France and allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. The conflict with France made Adams and the Federalists popular with the American public. However, Democratic-Republicans criticized the Federalists. To silence their critics the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The acts largely targeted aliens—immigrants who were not yet citizens—and newspapers. One act made it unlawful to say or write anything false or harmful about the government.Democratic-Republicans tried to fight the Alien and Sedition Acts through states’ rights. They believed states had the right to judge a federal law as being unconstitutional. Resolutions written by Jefferson and Madison passed the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures in 1798 and 1799. These declared that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated the Constitution. Congress repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts or let them expire. Adams opened talks with France and peace was made. The treaty, called the Convention of 1800, cleared the way for American and French ships to sail the ocean in peace. Despite his success in establishing peace between the U.S. and France Adams lost the presidential election of 1800 to Jefferson.
Main Idea: The president and the Congress began to set up the new government.
George Washington was inaugurated as the nation’s first president in 1789. John Adams became vice-president. Washington faced a difficult task. He knew his actions as president would set an example for all future presidents.Congress passed the Federal Judiciary Act of 1789. With this act the Supreme Court was established to include a chief justice and five associate judges. Today, we have nine judges. The act also provided for other lower federal courts. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. The Constitution gave Congress the power to create departments to help the president. The president appointed the department heads, who became his cabinet. Washington chose Henry Knox as secretary of war, Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Edmund Randolph as attorney general, and Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury. As secretary of the treasury, Hamilton had to straighten out the nation’s finances. First, the government needed to pay its debts. By 1789, the national debt was more than $52 million. The following year, Hamilton proposed his financial plan to Congress: first, pay off all war debts; second, raise government revenues; and third, create a national bank. The issue of repayment of state war debts became controversial. Many southern states had
already repaid their debts and resented being asked to help pay northern states’ debts. The states eventually reached a compromise. The southern states would support the plan in exchange for placing the nation’s capital in the south. Washington, D.C. was built on the Potomac River between Virginia and Maryland. To raise revenue Hamilton favored tariffs—taxes on imported foreign goods. Tariffs raised money for the government and encouraged the growth of American industry. The last part of Hamilton’s plan—the creation of a national bank—would provide the government with a safe place to keep money. The bank also would make loans to
government and businesses, and issue bank notes. The resulting debate over Hamilton’s plan exposed differences about how to interpret the Constitution. Madison and Jefferson argued that the Constitution did not give the government the power to set up a bank. They believed that the government has only those powers that the Constitution clearly says it has. Hamilton believed that the Constitution could be more loosely interpreted. He argued that the bank was necessary to carry out the government’s duties. Hamilton won the debate, and the Bank of the United States was set up in 1791.
Section 2: Securing the Northwest Territory
Main Idea: Washington established central authority at home and avoided war with European powers. There was a interest in the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The 1783 Treaty of Paris tried to resolve land claims, but within a few years, Spain, Britain, the United States, and Native Americans each claimed parts of this area, known as the Trans-Appalachian West. Spain claimed much of North America west of the Mississippi, as well as Florida and the Port of New Orleans. New Orleans was key to trade for settlers in the West. The Spanish, however, threatened to close the port. In violation of the Treaty of Paris, the British held forts north of the Ohio River in the Northwest Territory. The Native Americans hoped to form an independent nation bordered by the Ohio River to the south and Canada to the north. They fiercely resisted settlement of their land. Washington sent troops under Anthony Wayne to the Ohio Valley in order to secure the Northwest. In the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne defeated the Native Americans. By signing the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, they agreed to surrender much of present-day Ohio and Indiana. A conflict arose over the government’s tax on whiskey. Farmers protested the tax. They could more easily carry whiskey than grain to market, where they traded it for other goods. In 1794, a group of farmers in western Pennsylvania rebelled against the tax. Washington sent troops who crushed the “Whiskey Rebellion.” In 1789, French citizens began a revolution to overthrow their government. They wanted all people to have liberty and economic equality. As the struggle turned violent, King Louis XVI and thousands of French citizens were killed. Then, France declared war against Britain, Spain, and Holland. The war put the United States in an awkward position. France had been America’s ally in the American Revolution. A 1778 treaty bound France and the United States together. But many Americans thought that British trade was too important to the American economy to risk war. As a result, Washington decided that the United States would remain neutral and not take sides. Neutrality became difficult when Britain began seizing the cargoes of American ships in 1792. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to England to persuade the British to end the seizures. In Jay’s Treaty, the British agreed to pay damages for American vessels they had seized. They also agreed to give up their forts on the Northwest frontier by 1796. In 1795, Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain gave Americans the right to travel freely on the Mississippi River and to store goods at the port of New Orleans without paying custom
duties. Spain accepted the 31st parallel as the northern boundary of Florida and the southern boundary of the United States.
Section 3: The Federalists in Charge
Main Idea: The split between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the growth of political parties. Alexander Hamilton favored the British government and opposed the French Revolution. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison thought the opposite. Hamilton also wanted a strong central government. Jefferson and Madison thought such a government would lead to tyranny. Finally, Hamilton wanted an America in which trade, manufacturing, and cities grew. Jefferson and Madison wanted an America of planters and farmers. These issues led to debate and led the nation to form two political parties. Jefferson and Madison founded the Democratic-Republican Party. Hamilton and his friends formed the Federalist Party. In 1796, the Federalists chose John Adams as their candidate for President. The Democratic-Republicans chose Jefferson. Adams won the electoral vote. Since the Constitution said the runner-up should become vice-president, Jefferson became vice-president. After Washington left office in 1797, the French began seizing American ships to prevent them from trading with the British. Adams sent Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to Paris to meet with the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. Three agents—later referred to as X, Y,and Z—told the Americans that the French minister wanted the United States to loan France ten million dollars. The minister also wanted a bribe. The Americans refused. This incident became known as the XYZ Affair. In 1798, Congress canceled its treaty with France and allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. The conflict with France made Adams and the Federalists popular with the American public. However, Democratic-Republicans criticized the Federalists. To silence their critics the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The acts largely targeted aliens—immigrants who were not yet citizens—and newspapers. One act made it unlawful to say or write anything false or harmful about the government.Democratic-Republicans tried to fight the Alien and Sedition Acts through states’ rights. They believed states had the right to judge a federal law as being unconstitutional. Resolutions written by Jefferson and Madison passed the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures in 1798 and 1799. These declared that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated the Constitution. Congress repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts or let them expire. Adams opened talks with France and peace was made. The treaty, called the Convention of 1800, cleared the way for American and French ships to sail the ocean in peace. Despite his success in establishing peace between the U.S. and France Adams lost the presidential election of 1800 to Jefferson.
Chapter 10 The Jefferson Era (1800-1816)
Chapter 10: The Jefferson Era, 1800-1816
Section 1: Jefferson Takes Office
Main Idea: When Jefferson became president in 1801, his party replaced Federalist programs with its own. In the presidential election of 1800, there was a tie between two Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives had to choose between them. Members of the House voted 36 times before electing Jefferson. Burr became vice president. Thomas Jefferson was a skilled violinist, horseman, amateur scientist, and architect. He helped plan Washington, D.C. His book collection became the core of the Library of Congress. As president, Jefferson tried to unite Americans by promoting a common way of life. He wanted the United States to be a nation of independent farmers. Jefferson thought that the central government should have less power than it did under the Federalists. At Jefferson’s request, Congress let the Alien and Sedition Acts end and also ended many taxes passed by the Federalists. In addition, Jefferson worked to reduce public debt. Jefferson had less power over the courts. Under the Judiciary Act of 1801, John Adams had appointed as many Federalist judges as possible. Adams also appointed Federalist John Marshall as Chief Justice. During the 30-plus years that Marshall served, the Supreme Court upheld federal authority and strengthened the federal courts. James Madison, Jefferson’s Secretary of State, refused to give a man named William Marbury a job promised him by the previous administration. In the case known as Marbury versus Madison, John Marshall ruled against Marbury and also declared a law unconstitutional. This established the principle of judicial review—the power of the Supreme Court to decide exactly what the Constitution means.
Section 2: The Louisiana Purchase and Exploration
Main Idea: Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory in 1803 and doubled the size of the United States. In the 1800s, thousands of settlers moved westward. An important issue was their use of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans to send goods to east coast markets. In 1800, Spain agreed to return the Louisiana Territory to France. But first, in 1802, Spain closed New Orleans to U.S. ships. Westerners responded by calling for war against Spain and France. When Jefferson offered to buy New Orleans, France offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. On April 30, 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was approved for $15 million. Jefferson chose Captain Meriwether Lewis to explore the Louisiana Territory. Lewis chose Lieutenant William Clark, a skilled mapmaker and outdoorsman, to recruit volunteers for the trip. Their journey became known as the Lewis and Clark expedition. Lewis and Clark set out in the summer of 1803. In May 1804, the explorers headed up the Missouri River. They spent the following winter with the Mandan Indians in what is now North Dakota. In the spring of 1805, the expedition set out again and was joined by Sacagawea—a Shoshone Indian woman whose language skills and knowledge of geography were invaluable.The explorers crossed the Rocky Mountains and journeyed to the Columbia River, whichled them to the Pacific Ocean. In 1806, they returned to the East, bringing back valuablescientific and geographic information. In 1806, Zebulon Pike led an expedition to explore southern Louisiana and find the headwaters of the Arkansas and Red Rivers. He returned with important descriptions of the Red River and the valley of the Rio Grande.
Section 3: Problems with Foreign Powers
Main Idea: Jefferson tried to avoid involvement in the problems of other nations. For years after the French Revolution, Europe was at war. For awhile, the United States managed to stay out of these conflicts. By 1805, however, the British began to clamp down on U.S. shipping. They did not want Americans to provide their enemies with food and supplies. Then France made its own laws to control foreign shipping. Britain also interfered with U.S. shipping by impressment—the kidnapping of Americansailors to work on British ships. In 1807, the British ship Leopard attacked the American ship Chesapeake. Three U.S. sailors were killed. Jefferson asked Congress to pass trade laws to punish Britain and France. Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807 to stop all foreign trade. The act prohibited U.S. ships from sailing to foreign ports. It also closed American ports to British ships. Jefferson’s policy was more harmful to Americans than to the British and French. Congress repealed the embargo in 1809. That year Madison became the next president. He reopened trade with all countries except France and Britain. Madison’s policy was not effective either. After the Battle of Fallen Timbers, thousands of white settlers moved into Ohio and Indiana. In September 1809, the governor of the Indiana Territory signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne. Chiefs of the Miami, Delaware, and Potawatomi tribes agreed to sell over three million acres to the United States. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, said the land could not be sold without the consent of all tribes. He believed that the tribes needed to work together to stop the loss of land. Many Native Americans began to follow Tecumseh and form an alliance. Then, in November 1811, U.S. forces defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Tecumseh and his followers fled to Canada, where the British welcomed them. Americans became increasingly angry over British interference. Westerners called War Hawks demanded that Congress declare war on Britain. On June 18, 1812, war was declared.
Section 4: The War of 1812
Main Idea: Angered by Britain’s interference in the nation’s affairs, the United States went to war. The War of 1812 had two main phases. From 1812 to 1814, Britain concentrated on its war against France. After Britain defeated France in 1814, British leaders turned their attention to the United States. When the war began, the United States military was weak. Fortunately, the navy’s warships were the fastest afloat. The most important U.S. naval victory took place on Lake Erie. In September 1813, a British force attacked American ships commanded by Oliver Hazard Perry. Perry won the battle. Then General William Henry Harrison defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames. This victory ended the British threat in the Northwest and also claimed the life of Tecumseh. The British attacked Washington, D.C. There, they burned the White House. Then they attacked Fort McHenry at Baltimore. A Washington lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched the all-night battle. At dawn, Key saw the fort’s flag still flying. Inspired, he wrote the U.S. national anthem. In the North, an American fleet defeated the British in the Battle of Lake Champlain inSeptember 1814. In the South, the British attacked New Orleans but were defeated by United States General Andrew Jackson. The Battle of New Orleans was unnecessary. Two weeks earlier, officials had signed the Treaty of Ghent ending the war. Slow mails had delayed the news. The Treaty of Ghent showed that the war had no clear winner. Nevertheless, there were four important consequences. One: patriotism increased; two: the war weakened Native Americans; three: Americans were forced to make many of their own goods, causing United States manufacturing to grow; and four: the United States proved it could defend itself.
Section 1: Jefferson Takes Office
Main Idea: When Jefferson became president in 1801, his party replaced Federalist programs with its own. In the presidential election of 1800, there was a tie between two Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives had to choose between them. Members of the House voted 36 times before electing Jefferson. Burr became vice president. Thomas Jefferson was a skilled violinist, horseman, amateur scientist, and architect. He helped plan Washington, D.C. His book collection became the core of the Library of Congress. As president, Jefferson tried to unite Americans by promoting a common way of life. He wanted the United States to be a nation of independent farmers. Jefferson thought that the central government should have less power than it did under the Federalists. At Jefferson’s request, Congress let the Alien and Sedition Acts end and also ended many taxes passed by the Federalists. In addition, Jefferson worked to reduce public debt. Jefferson had less power over the courts. Under the Judiciary Act of 1801, John Adams had appointed as many Federalist judges as possible. Adams also appointed Federalist John Marshall as Chief Justice. During the 30-plus years that Marshall served, the Supreme Court upheld federal authority and strengthened the federal courts. James Madison, Jefferson’s Secretary of State, refused to give a man named William Marbury a job promised him by the previous administration. In the case known as Marbury versus Madison, John Marshall ruled against Marbury and also declared a law unconstitutional. This established the principle of judicial review—the power of the Supreme Court to decide exactly what the Constitution means.
Section 2: The Louisiana Purchase and Exploration
Main Idea: Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory in 1803 and doubled the size of the United States. In the 1800s, thousands of settlers moved westward. An important issue was their use of the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans to send goods to east coast markets. In 1800, Spain agreed to return the Louisiana Territory to France. But first, in 1802, Spain closed New Orleans to U.S. ships. Westerners responded by calling for war against Spain and France. When Jefferson offered to buy New Orleans, France offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. On April 30, 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was approved for $15 million. Jefferson chose Captain Meriwether Lewis to explore the Louisiana Territory. Lewis chose Lieutenant William Clark, a skilled mapmaker and outdoorsman, to recruit volunteers for the trip. Their journey became known as the Lewis and Clark expedition. Lewis and Clark set out in the summer of 1803. In May 1804, the explorers headed up the Missouri River. They spent the following winter with the Mandan Indians in what is now North Dakota. In the spring of 1805, the expedition set out again and was joined by Sacagawea—a Shoshone Indian woman whose language skills and knowledge of geography were invaluable.The explorers crossed the Rocky Mountains and journeyed to the Columbia River, whichled them to the Pacific Ocean. In 1806, they returned to the East, bringing back valuablescientific and geographic information. In 1806, Zebulon Pike led an expedition to explore southern Louisiana and find the headwaters of the Arkansas and Red Rivers. He returned with important descriptions of the Red River and the valley of the Rio Grande.
Section 3: Problems with Foreign Powers
Main Idea: Jefferson tried to avoid involvement in the problems of other nations. For years after the French Revolution, Europe was at war. For awhile, the United States managed to stay out of these conflicts. By 1805, however, the British began to clamp down on U.S. shipping. They did not want Americans to provide their enemies with food and supplies. Then France made its own laws to control foreign shipping. Britain also interfered with U.S. shipping by impressment—the kidnapping of Americansailors to work on British ships. In 1807, the British ship Leopard attacked the American ship Chesapeake. Three U.S. sailors were killed. Jefferson asked Congress to pass trade laws to punish Britain and France. Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807 to stop all foreign trade. The act prohibited U.S. ships from sailing to foreign ports. It also closed American ports to British ships. Jefferson’s policy was more harmful to Americans than to the British and French. Congress repealed the embargo in 1809. That year Madison became the next president. He reopened trade with all countries except France and Britain. Madison’s policy was not effective either. After the Battle of Fallen Timbers, thousands of white settlers moved into Ohio and Indiana. In September 1809, the governor of the Indiana Territory signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne. Chiefs of the Miami, Delaware, and Potawatomi tribes agreed to sell over three million acres to the United States. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, said the land could not be sold without the consent of all tribes. He believed that the tribes needed to work together to stop the loss of land. Many Native Americans began to follow Tecumseh and form an alliance. Then, in November 1811, U.S. forces defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Tecumseh and his followers fled to Canada, where the British welcomed them. Americans became increasingly angry over British interference. Westerners called War Hawks demanded that Congress declare war on Britain. On June 18, 1812, war was declared.
Section 4: The War of 1812
Main Idea: Angered by Britain’s interference in the nation’s affairs, the United States went to war. The War of 1812 had two main phases. From 1812 to 1814, Britain concentrated on its war against France. After Britain defeated France in 1814, British leaders turned their attention to the United States. When the war began, the United States military was weak. Fortunately, the navy’s warships were the fastest afloat. The most important U.S. naval victory took place on Lake Erie. In September 1813, a British force attacked American ships commanded by Oliver Hazard Perry. Perry won the battle. Then General William Henry Harrison defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames. This victory ended the British threat in the Northwest and also claimed the life of Tecumseh. The British attacked Washington, D.C. There, they burned the White House. Then they attacked Fort McHenry at Baltimore. A Washington lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched the all-night battle. At dawn, Key saw the fort’s flag still flying. Inspired, he wrote the U.S. national anthem. In the North, an American fleet defeated the British in the Battle of Lake Champlain inSeptember 1814. In the South, the British attacked New Orleans but were defeated by United States General Andrew Jackson. The Battle of New Orleans was unnecessary. Two weeks earlier, officials had signed the Treaty of Ghent ending the war. Slow mails had delayed the news. The Treaty of Ghent showed that the war had no clear winner. Nevertheless, there were four important consequences. One: patriotism increased; two: the war weakened Native Americans; three: Americans were forced to make many of their own goods, causing United States manufacturing to grow; and four: the United States proved it could defend itself.
Chapter 11 National and Regonal Growth (1800-1844)
Chapter 11: National and Regional Growth 1800-1844
Section 1: Early Industry and Inventions
Main Idea: New machines and factories changed the way people lived and worked in the late 1700s and early 1800s. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the late 1700s. It involved the use of factory machines that replaced hand tools. Large-scale manufacturing replaced farming as the main form of work. The factory system brought many workers and machines together under one roof. Most factories were built near water, which powered the machines. People left farms to work in factories. Many people did not want the United States to industrialize. However, during the War of 1812 the British blockade kept imported goods from reaching the United States. This forced Americans to start manufacturing their own goods. America built its first factories in New England. This region’s rivers provided water power. Ships had access to the ocean. There were many willing workers. Samuel Slater built his first spinning mill in Rhode Island in 1790 and hired whole families to work. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell built a factory in Waltham, Massachusetts, that produced cotton yarn and cloth. The factory’s success led to the building of Lowell, a factory town the Merrimack and Concord rivers. The Lowell mills employed farm girls who lived in company-owned boardinghouses and worked in deafening noise. In 1798, the U.S. government hired the inventor Eli Whitney to make 10,000 muskets for the army. Up until then, guns were made one at a time. In 1801, Whitney demonstrated the use of parts that were exactly alike, or interchangeable. Interchangeable parts made production faster. New inventions improved transportation and communication. Robert Fulton invented a steamboat that could move against the current or strong wind. In 1807, he launched the Clermont on the Hudson River. In 1816, Henry Miller Shreve designed a more powerful steam engine. Shreve started a new era of trade and transportation on the Mississippi River. In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrated the telegraph, which allowed messages to travel between cities in seconds. By 1861, telegraph lines spanned the country. Several inventions increased farm production. In 1836, John Deere invented a lightweight plow with a steel cutting edge. His invention made it easier for farmers to prepare heavy Midwestern soil for planting.
In 1834, Cyrus McCormick’s reaper cut ripe grain. The threshing machine separated kernels of wheat from husks. New farming equipment helped Midwestern farmers feed Northeastern factory workers. Midwestern farmers became a market for the goods manufactured in the Northeast. Northeastern textile mills increased the need for Southern cotton.
Section 2: Plantations and Slavery Spread
Main Idea: The invention of the cotton gin and the demand for cotton caused slavery to
spread in the South. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which allowed one worker to clean as much as 50 pounds of cotton a day. The cotton gin changed Southern life in four ways. First, cotton farming moved westward. Second, cotton became the number one crop. Third, more Native Americans were driven off Southern land as cotton plantations took over. Fourth, slavery continued as an important source of labor. Cotton production rose greatly between 1790 and 1860, as did the number of Southern slaves. As earnings from cotton rose, so did the price of slaves. Slavery divided white Southerners into those who held slaves and those who did not. Only about one-third of white Southern families owned slaves in 1840. Of these families, only about one-tenth had large plantations. Nevertheless, most white Southern farmers supported slavery. In 1840, about one-third of the South’s population was enslaved. About half of them worked on plantations. In cities, enslaved people worked as domestic servants, craftsmen, factory workers, and day laborers. About 8 percent of African Americans in the South were free, either by birth or by having bought their own freedom. Free blacks, however, faced many problems. By the early 1800s, African Americans on plantations had developed their own culture, which helped them survive the hardships of plantation life. Enslaved people expressed their religious beliefs in spirituals, or religious folk songs, that often contained coded messages. One of the cruelest parts of slavery was the selling of family members away from one another. Parents who lived away from their children often stole away to visit them, although they risked being whipped for doing so. Disobedience and escaping were ways of resisting slavery. Several armed rebellions took place in the early 1800s. The most famous was led by Nat Turner in 1831. Turner and 70 followers killed 55 white men, women, and children. Most of Turner’s followers were captured and 16 were killed. Turner was hanged. Southern whites killed more than 200 African Americans in revenge. States passed laws that kept blacks from having weapons or buying liquor. They could not hold religious services unless whites were present.
Section 3: Nationalism and Sectionalism
Main Idea: Patriotic pride united the states, but tension between the North and South emerged. In the early 1800s, nationalism, or feelings of pride, loyalty, and protectiveness toward the United States, pulled people of different regions together. Congressman Henry Clay, a strong nationalist, had a plan for unifying the country. This plan, the American System, had three parts. One: set up a protective tariff, a tax on foreign goods. Two: set up a national bank with a single currency. And three: improve the country’s transportation systems. Transportation improved in the first half of the 1800s. In 1806, Congress funded a road that eventually stretched west from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois. The building of the Erie Canal opened the upper Ohio River valley and the Great Lakes region to settlement and trade. Around the 1830s, steam-powered trains began to be used for transportation. By 1850, there were more than 9,000 miles of track across the United States. As nationalism increased, people became more loyal to the government. James Monroe won the presidential election in 1816 by a large majority of votes, leading one newspaper to call the times the Era of Good Feelings. Several Supreme Court decisions strengthened the power of the federal government. Feelings of nationalism also made U.S. leaders want to extend the country’s borders. An agreement with Britain helped set the U.S.-Canada border. However, the United States and Spain disagreed on the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase and the ownership of West Florida. After U.S. general Andrew Jackson invaded Florida, Spain gave Florida to the United States in 1819. Sectionalism, or loyalty to a region, nevertheless caused conflict between the North, South, and West. Sectionalism became a major issue when Missouri applied for statehood in 1818. Acceptance of Missouri would have changed the balance of 11 slave states and 11 free states. Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, suggested that Missouri be admitted as a slave state and Maine as a free state. His plan, known as the Missouri Compromise, kept the balance of power. The nation also felt threatened by Russian settlements along the west coast and by Spain and Portugal’s plan to take back some American colonies. In 1823, President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine. This warned European countries not to set up any more colonies in the Americas.
Main Idea: New machines and factories changed the way people lived and worked in the late 1700s and early 1800s. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain during the late 1700s. It involved the use of factory machines that replaced hand tools. Large-scale manufacturing replaced farming as the main form of work. The factory system brought many workers and machines together under one roof. Most factories were built near water, which powered the machines. People left farms to work in factories. Many people did not want the United States to industrialize. However, during the War of 1812 the British blockade kept imported goods from reaching the United States. This forced Americans to start manufacturing their own goods. America built its first factories in New England. This region’s rivers provided water power. Ships had access to the ocean. There were many willing workers. Samuel Slater built his first spinning mill in Rhode Island in 1790 and hired whole families to work. In 1813, Francis Cabot Lowell built a factory in Waltham, Massachusetts, that produced cotton yarn and cloth. The factory’s success led to the building of Lowell, a factory town the Merrimack and Concord rivers. The Lowell mills employed farm girls who lived in company-owned boardinghouses and worked in deafening noise. In 1798, the U.S. government hired the inventor Eli Whitney to make 10,000 muskets for the army. Up until then, guns were made one at a time. In 1801, Whitney demonstrated the use of parts that were exactly alike, or interchangeable. Interchangeable parts made production faster. New inventions improved transportation and communication. Robert Fulton invented a steamboat that could move against the current or strong wind. In 1807, he launched the Clermont on the Hudson River. In 1816, Henry Miller Shreve designed a more powerful steam engine. Shreve started a new era of trade and transportation on the Mississippi River. In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrated the telegraph, which allowed messages to travel between cities in seconds. By 1861, telegraph lines spanned the country. Several inventions increased farm production. In 1836, John Deere invented a lightweight plow with a steel cutting edge. His invention made it easier for farmers to prepare heavy Midwestern soil for planting.
In 1834, Cyrus McCormick’s reaper cut ripe grain. The threshing machine separated kernels of wheat from husks. New farming equipment helped Midwestern farmers feed Northeastern factory workers. Midwestern farmers became a market for the goods manufactured in the Northeast. Northeastern textile mills increased the need for Southern cotton.
Section 2: Plantations and Slavery Spread
Main Idea: The invention of the cotton gin and the demand for cotton caused slavery to
spread in the South. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which allowed one worker to clean as much as 50 pounds of cotton a day. The cotton gin changed Southern life in four ways. First, cotton farming moved westward. Second, cotton became the number one crop. Third, more Native Americans were driven off Southern land as cotton plantations took over. Fourth, slavery continued as an important source of labor. Cotton production rose greatly between 1790 and 1860, as did the number of Southern slaves. As earnings from cotton rose, so did the price of slaves. Slavery divided white Southerners into those who held slaves and those who did not. Only about one-third of white Southern families owned slaves in 1840. Of these families, only about one-tenth had large plantations. Nevertheless, most white Southern farmers supported slavery. In 1840, about one-third of the South’s population was enslaved. About half of them worked on plantations. In cities, enslaved people worked as domestic servants, craftsmen, factory workers, and day laborers. About 8 percent of African Americans in the South were free, either by birth or by having bought their own freedom. Free blacks, however, faced many problems. By the early 1800s, African Americans on plantations had developed their own culture, which helped them survive the hardships of plantation life. Enslaved people expressed their religious beliefs in spirituals, or religious folk songs, that often contained coded messages. One of the cruelest parts of slavery was the selling of family members away from one another. Parents who lived away from their children often stole away to visit them, although they risked being whipped for doing so. Disobedience and escaping were ways of resisting slavery. Several armed rebellions took place in the early 1800s. The most famous was led by Nat Turner in 1831. Turner and 70 followers killed 55 white men, women, and children. Most of Turner’s followers were captured and 16 were killed. Turner was hanged. Southern whites killed more than 200 African Americans in revenge. States passed laws that kept blacks from having weapons or buying liquor. They could not hold religious services unless whites were present.
Section 3: Nationalism and Sectionalism
Main Idea: Patriotic pride united the states, but tension between the North and South emerged. In the early 1800s, nationalism, or feelings of pride, loyalty, and protectiveness toward the United States, pulled people of different regions together. Congressman Henry Clay, a strong nationalist, had a plan for unifying the country. This plan, the American System, had three parts. One: set up a protective tariff, a tax on foreign goods. Two: set up a national bank with a single currency. And three: improve the country’s transportation systems. Transportation improved in the first half of the 1800s. In 1806, Congress funded a road that eventually stretched west from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois. The building of the Erie Canal opened the upper Ohio River valley and the Great Lakes region to settlement and trade. Around the 1830s, steam-powered trains began to be used for transportation. By 1850, there were more than 9,000 miles of track across the United States. As nationalism increased, people became more loyal to the government. James Monroe won the presidential election in 1816 by a large majority of votes, leading one newspaper to call the times the Era of Good Feelings. Several Supreme Court decisions strengthened the power of the federal government. Feelings of nationalism also made U.S. leaders want to extend the country’s borders. An agreement with Britain helped set the U.S.-Canada border. However, the United States and Spain disagreed on the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase and the ownership of West Florida. After U.S. general Andrew Jackson invaded Florida, Spain gave Florida to the United States in 1819. Sectionalism, or loyalty to a region, nevertheless caused conflict between the North, South, and West. Sectionalism became a major issue when Missouri applied for statehood in 1818. Acceptance of Missouri would have changed the balance of 11 slave states and 11 free states. Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, suggested that Missouri be admitted as a slave state and Maine as a free state. His plan, known as the Missouri Compromise, kept the balance of power. The nation also felt threatened by Russian settlements along the west coast and by Spain and Portugal’s plan to take back some American colonies. In 1823, President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine. This warned European countries not to set up any more colonies in the Americas.
Chapter 12 The Age of Jackson (1824-1840)
Chapter 12: The Age of Jackson 1824-1840
Section 1: Politics of the People
Main Idea: Andrew Jackson’s election to the presidency in 1828 brought a new era of popular democracy. In 1824, four men hoped to replace President Monroe. John Quincy Adams, Monroe’s secretary of state, was New England’s choice. William Crawford of Georgia was the Southern choice. Westerners supported Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson. Jackson won the most popular votes but did not receive the majority of electoral votes. According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives must choose the president if no one wins a majority of electoral votes. Clay, who had come in fourth, voted for Adams, who won. The split between Jackson and Adams created another two-party system. Jackson’s supporters became the Democrats. Adams’s supporters became the National Republicans. The election of 1828 again pitted Adams against Jackson. Jackson promised to look out for the common people and to promote majority rule, an idea that became known as Jacksonian democracy. In the early 1800s, laws were passed that allowed more common people to vote. The expansion of voting rights helped Jackson win, which was viewed as a victory for common people. Andrew Jackson was a war hero and the first president from the West. People from all kinds of backgrounds came to Jackson’s inauguration. Eventually the crowd at the White House became so rowdy and destructive that the president was forced to leave. Jackson had promised to reform the government. He started by giving many government jobs to his supporters. This practice became known as the spoils system.
Section 2: Jackson’s Policy Toward Native Americans
Main Idea: During Jackson’s presidency, Native Americans were forced to move west of
the Mississippi River. Despite pressure from white settlers, many Native Americans still lived east of the Mississippi River in the 1820s. The major tribes included the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and the Seminole. Whites called them the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1828, gold was found on Cherokee land in Georgia. Soon settlers and miners wanted the land. They demanded that all Native Americans be removed from the Southeast. Southern states passed laws giving whites the right to take Native American lands. Jackson asked Congress to pass a law that would force Native Americans to move west or to submit to state laws. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. It required Native Americans to relocate west of the Mississippi River. Many Native Americans saw no other choice but to move west to the Indian Territory, which covered what is now Oklahoma and parts of Kansas and Nebraska. Beginning in 1831, the Choctaws and other Southeastern tribes were relocated there. The Cherokees, however, asked the Supreme Court to protect their land. The Supreme Court responded by striking down the Indian Removal Act. It stated that only the federal government could make laws governing the Cherokees. Jackson refused to obey the court’s ruling. In 1838, federal troops forced the Cherokees to move from Georgia to the Indian Territory. A quarter of the Cherokees died in this journey, known as the Trail of Tears. In Florida, the Seminole refused to leave. This led to the Second Seminole War. When an important Seminole leader named Osceola arrived for peace talks in 1837, he was captured. He later died in prison. The war ended in 1842. Other tribes also fought relocation. In 1832, a Sauk chief named Black Hawk led a band of Sauk and Fox back to the lands in Illinois that they had been forced to leave. In the Black Hawk War, the U.S. army crushed the uprising.
Section 3: Conflicts Over States’ Rights
Main Idea: Jackson struggled to keep Southern states from breaking away from the Union over the issue of tariffs. When President Jackson took office in 1829, conflicts between the Northeast, the South, and the West were pulling the nation apart. The first conflict involved Western lands that the federal government was selling. Westerners wanted low prices to attract more settlers. Northeasterners feared that the cheap land would attract workers needed in the Northeastern factories. The second conflict was about transportation improvements. The Northeast and West wanted the government to spend money to improve the transportation of goods. Southerners were opposed, because the money would come from increased tariffs. The third conflict involved tariffs. Northerners supported high tariffs because they made imported goods more expensive than American-made goods. Southerners were opposed. They had to sell their cotton at low prices to be competitive. But tariffs forced Southerners to pay high prices for the foreign goods they bought in exchange. When Congress raised the tariff on raw materials and manufactured goods in 1828, Southerners called it the "Tariff of Abominations." Some South Carolina leaders began talking about leaving the Union. Vice President John C. Calhoun believed that Congress had no right to impose a tariff that favored one section of the country. He proposed the doctrine of nullification, which said that a state had the right to reject a federal law that it found unconstitutional. In January 1830, Webster and Hayne debated the issue of nullification in the Senate. Daniel Webster, a senator from Massachusetts, was opposed to nullification. Robert Hayne of South Carolina supported it. When President Jackson made it clear that he opposed nullification, he and Calhoun became political enemies. Although Congress lowered the tariff in 1832, Southerners still thought it was too high. South Carolina nullified the tariff acts and threatened secession, or withdrawal from the Union, if the government tried to collect tariffs. Jackson said he would use force to make sure that federal laws were obeyed and that the Union stayed together. Henry Clay worked out a compromise tariff in 1833 that kept South Carolina in the Union.
Section 4: Prosperity and Panic
Main Idea: Jackson’s policies caused the economy to collapse after he left office and affected the next election. The Second Bank of the United States was the most powerful bank in the country. Its , Nicholas Biddle, set policies that controlled the country’s money supply. President Jackson thought the bank had too much power and vetoed Congress’s renewal of the bank’s charter. Jackson’s opposition to the bank was a major issue in the 1832 election. After he won, Jackson took federal money out of the national bank and put it in state banks. This forced the national bank to close. Many of the banks that Jackson had put money into during the bank war issued too much paper money. This increase made each dollar worth less and resulted in inflation—an increase in prices and a decrease in the value of money. Soon after Martin Van Buren became president, the Panic of 1837 began. People took their paper dollars to the banks and wanted them exchanged for gold and silver. But the banks could not pay, and many banks failed. The nation’s money system collapsed. An economic depression began. President Van Buren lost the 1840 election to William Henry Harrison, the Whig Party candidate. The Whig Party was formed by Jackson’s opponents. It was opposed to a president having too much power. One month after being inaugurated, Harrison died of pneumonia. He was succeeded by his vice-president, John Tyler.
Main Idea: Andrew Jackson’s election to the presidency in 1828 brought a new era of popular democracy. In 1824, four men hoped to replace President Monroe. John Quincy Adams, Monroe’s secretary of state, was New England’s choice. William Crawford of Georgia was the Southern choice. Westerners supported Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson. Jackson won the most popular votes but did not receive the majority of electoral votes. According to the Constitution, the House of Representatives must choose the president if no one wins a majority of electoral votes. Clay, who had come in fourth, voted for Adams, who won. The split between Jackson and Adams created another two-party system. Jackson’s supporters became the Democrats. Adams’s supporters became the National Republicans. The election of 1828 again pitted Adams against Jackson. Jackson promised to look out for the common people and to promote majority rule, an idea that became known as Jacksonian democracy. In the early 1800s, laws were passed that allowed more common people to vote. The expansion of voting rights helped Jackson win, which was viewed as a victory for common people. Andrew Jackson was a war hero and the first president from the West. People from all kinds of backgrounds came to Jackson’s inauguration. Eventually the crowd at the White House became so rowdy and destructive that the president was forced to leave. Jackson had promised to reform the government. He started by giving many government jobs to his supporters. This practice became known as the spoils system.
Section 2: Jackson’s Policy Toward Native Americans
Main Idea: During Jackson’s presidency, Native Americans were forced to move west of
the Mississippi River. Despite pressure from white settlers, many Native Americans still lived east of the Mississippi River in the 1820s. The major tribes included the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and the Seminole. Whites called them the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1828, gold was found on Cherokee land in Georgia. Soon settlers and miners wanted the land. They demanded that all Native Americans be removed from the Southeast. Southern states passed laws giving whites the right to take Native American lands. Jackson asked Congress to pass a law that would force Native Americans to move west or to submit to state laws. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. It required Native Americans to relocate west of the Mississippi River. Many Native Americans saw no other choice but to move west to the Indian Territory, which covered what is now Oklahoma and parts of Kansas and Nebraska. Beginning in 1831, the Choctaws and other Southeastern tribes were relocated there. The Cherokees, however, asked the Supreme Court to protect their land. The Supreme Court responded by striking down the Indian Removal Act. It stated that only the federal government could make laws governing the Cherokees. Jackson refused to obey the court’s ruling. In 1838, federal troops forced the Cherokees to move from Georgia to the Indian Territory. A quarter of the Cherokees died in this journey, known as the Trail of Tears. In Florida, the Seminole refused to leave. This led to the Second Seminole War. When an important Seminole leader named Osceola arrived for peace talks in 1837, he was captured. He later died in prison. The war ended in 1842. Other tribes also fought relocation. In 1832, a Sauk chief named Black Hawk led a band of Sauk and Fox back to the lands in Illinois that they had been forced to leave. In the Black Hawk War, the U.S. army crushed the uprising.
Section 3: Conflicts Over States’ Rights
Main Idea: Jackson struggled to keep Southern states from breaking away from the Union over the issue of tariffs. When President Jackson took office in 1829, conflicts between the Northeast, the South, and the West were pulling the nation apart. The first conflict involved Western lands that the federal government was selling. Westerners wanted low prices to attract more settlers. Northeasterners feared that the cheap land would attract workers needed in the Northeastern factories. The second conflict was about transportation improvements. The Northeast and West wanted the government to spend money to improve the transportation of goods. Southerners were opposed, because the money would come from increased tariffs. The third conflict involved tariffs. Northerners supported high tariffs because they made imported goods more expensive than American-made goods. Southerners were opposed. They had to sell their cotton at low prices to be competitive. But tariffs forced Southerners to pay high prices for the foreign goods they bought in exchange. When Congress raised the tariff on raw materials and manufactured goods in 1828, Southerners called it the "Tariff of Abominations." Some South Carolina leaders began talking about leaving the Union. Vice President John C. Calhoun believed that Congress had no right to impose a tariff that favored one section of the country. He proposed the doctrine of nullification, which said that a state had the right to reject a federal law that it found unconstitutional. In January 1830, Webster and Hayne debated the issue of nullification in the Senate. Daniel Webster, a senator from Massachusetts, was opposed to nullification. Robert Hayne of South Carolina supported it. When President Jackson made it clear that he opposed nullification, he and Calhoun became political enemies. Although Congress lowered the tariff in 1832, Southerners still thought it was too high. South Carolina nullified the tariff acts and threatened secession, or withdrawal from the Union, if the government tried to collect tariffs. Jackson said he would use force to make sure that federal laws were obeyed and that the Union stayed together. Henry Clay worked out a compromise tariff in 1833 that kept South Carolina in the Union.
Section 4: Prosperity and Panic
Main Idea: Jackson’s policies caused the economy to collapse after he left office and affected the next election. The Second Bank of the United States was the most powerful bank in the country. Its , Nicholas Biddle, set policies that controlled the country’s money supply. President Jackson thought the bank had too much power and vetoed Congress’s renewal of the bank’s charter. Jackson’s opposition to the bank was a major issue in the 1832 election. After he won, Jackson took federal money out of the national bank and put it in state banks. This forced the national bank to close. Many of the banks that Jackson had put money into during the bank war issued too much paper money. This increase made each dollar worth less and resulted in inflation—an increase in prices and a decrease in the value of money. Soon after Martin Van Buren became president, the Panic of 1837 began. People took their paper dollars to the banks and wanted them exchanged for gold and silver. But the banks could not pay, and many banks failed. The nation’s money system collapsed. An economic depression began. President Van Buren lost the 1840 election to William Henry Harrison, the Whig Party candidate. The Whig Party was formed by Jackson’s opponents. It was opposed to a president having too much power. One month after being inaugurated, Harrison died of pneumonia. He was succeeded by his vice-president, John Tyler.
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